(In alphabetical order)
Halgrim Breie, Øystein Holand & Robert B. Weladji
Department of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Norway, P.O. Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway.
The relevance of large-scale climatic fluctuations in the northern hemisphere, and especially the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), has during the last years been emphasised as ecologically significant for several populations of northern ungulates. For the climate in northern Europe and Scandinavia the NAO has been found most relevant from December through March, as high NAO values has often been followed by warm, moist weather and low NAO values has been followed by cold, dry weather. In this study we used carcass weights from three herds of semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in southern Norway, sampled during the years 1992 to 2000. In this period we found a positive relation between the NAO winter-index and late autumn calf weights. Nevertheless, pregnant females probably experienced more nutritional stress during high than low NAO winters due to increased amounts of snow, but this negative influence was either being ruled out by consecutive high quality summer forage or acted on other population parameters than body weights. We also found differences in the NAO influence on calf weights between the three study populations. Even though they all exploited the same winter range, each population exploited different summer ranges along a climatic and geologic gradient. The influence of the NAO-index, both on the locally received winter precipitation and the calf weights, decreased from the poor continental to the rich coastal summer grounds. We emphasise the importance of NAO as a governing factor that has more impact on the quality and quantity of the summer forage in arid than in wet reindeer summer habitats in South-Norway.
Anu Brunila-Kovanen
Department of geography, University of Oulu, Dept. of Geography, P.O.Box 3000, FIN-90014 Oulun yliopisto, Finland (anu.brunila-kovanen@kolumbus.fi).
A significant differences have been noted in the lichen coverage between the reindeer breeding areas in the Finnish Lapland and the Kuola Region, which is not used for reindeer breeding. This has been detected in many accounts, e.g. in studies on the satellite images during the recent years. Intensive reindeer breeding in the Finnish Lapland has changed the amounts of ground level vegetation on the forest floor so that especially reindeer moss has reduced and been replaced by other species of moss. Many recent accounts show that reindeer breeding is significantly changing the natural forest ecosystem in Lapland
The lichen coverage affects the temperature and the moisture on the ground and therefore affect how well the roots cope with frost For example sandy areas the top soil might be 3-4 degrees lower, if lichen is missing. The importance of the lichen isolation is accentuated by the decreasing temperatures in late summer and early winter as there is no snow coverage yet. Porous snow coverage replaces the lichen as insulation, but in certain conditions the insulation from snow might be rather minimal.
Reindeers use up the lichen coverage, thus changing the amounts of different species on the ground. At the same time, the reindeers affect the amount and the chemical consistency of the material that end up to the decomposers in the soil. The differences in temperature and moisture in the soil have also an effect on the decomposing activity of microbes. These conditions are more stable in the less used up areas. Therefore reindeer breeding affects indirectly on the nitrogen cycle and possibly on the productivity of the forest.
Benjamin Burkhard & Felix Müller
Ecology Center, Kiel University, Schauenburgerstraße 112, D-24118 Kiel, Germany
(benjamin@ecology.uni-kiel.de).
To develop particular indicators regarding the ecological, social and economic sustainability of reindeer management in northern Scandinavia means to create a useful tool to assist the formulation of landuse scenarios and plans. These indicators can be aggregated to a set that landusers and decision makers can understand and utilise. Working in the multidisciplinarian EU project RENMAN our goal is to interpret the results from our collaborators and “to feed” our indicator system by the data collected. Indicators range from ecological data as matter flows or biotic diversity to social data concerning life quality or ethnological identity. In the “amoeba” diagrams the current states are indicated as 100% and the future states, conceived to follow a certain simulated scenario, are represented by modified scenario values. While for certain indicators (landuse intensity and ecological integrity) we will be able to find/measure/model data, some other components (e.g. economic and social welfare) will be more fuzzy. Thus we have to discuss them intensively with the stakeholders and use the results of the interviews carried out among reindeer herders, researchers and decision makers. Scientific measurements have to be combined with sociological and medical assumptions.
Elisabeth J. Cooper
Norwegian Polar Institute, Polarmiljøsenteret, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway (cooper@npolar.no).
The number of species and percentage cover of forage lichen were all greater inside than outside three long-term reindeer exclosures on Brøggerhalvøya, Svalbard, suggesting that grazing and trampling has greatly affected the presence and growth of lichen. Mean relative growth rates of undamaged forage lichen ranged from 2.4 (Alectoria nigricans) to 10.6 (Cladonia rangiferina) mg.g-1.week-1. This relates to a seasonal increase of between 1.8% and 11.2% of original dry mass. The survival rate of small pieces of Cetraria nivalis was lower than that of intact thalli, however, there was no significant difference between the growth rates. Cetraria nivalis is expected to re-establish from small pieces after damage to the thalli due to trampling or grazing. The slow growth of thalli and an inability to withstand physical damage, makes these lichens vulnerable to destruction by an increasing reindeer population. The lichen communities are only likely to be able to re-establish if there is a significant reduction in the reindeer population for 10-20 years, such as could occur by a complete emigration of deer from the area.
Elisabeth J. Cooper
Norwegian Polar Institute, Polarmiljøsenteret, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway (cooper@npolar.no).
Recolonisation of trampled lichen pastures in the High Arctic is dependent on the regrowth from small fragments of lichen thalli. Intact lichen have been shown to grow most rapidly during periods of sustained moisture caused by rainfall or cloudy days. Climate change models for arctic areas predict wetter summers, milder winters and greater stochastic variability. Therefore we hypothesised that the growth of both damaged and intact Svalbard reindeer forage lichens would be increased under the future climatic scenarios. The effects of rainfall frequency, increased precipitation, and simulated cloud cover on the relative growth rates (RGRs) of Cetraria delisei, C. islandica and C. nivalis, from NW Svalbard were examined under controlled conditions. In 63% of the treatments, the percentage of thalli with a mass increase was lower for cut than intact lichen. Cut thalli had lower RGRs than intact thalli at most watering regimes. Frequency of watering was the most important factor influencing growth, but also interacted synergistically with amount. Damaged thalli watered frequently grew significantly more than intact thalli watered less frequently. Lower light did not depress the RGR, suggesting that shading provided by increased cloud cover did not affect the lichen growth. Damaged lichen thalli grew at a slower rate than intact thalli, but these small fragments have potential to recolonise trampled and grazed areas of Brøggerhalvøya. The predicted increase in summer precipitation is expected to increase the growth rates of these fragments and may help to ameliorate the damage done to the lichen thalli by reindeer trampling and grazing.
Hallvard Gjøstein, Øystein Holand, Tore Bolstad & Knut Hove
Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Animal Science, P.O.Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway (hallvard.gjostein@ihf.nlh.no).
The milk production was assessed in two groups of captive reindeer. In group 1 does were kept together with the calves for free suckling through the lactation period. In group 2 the calves were sacrified at parturition. In group 1 milk production was measured once a week, whereas does in group 2 were milked twice daily with 12- hours interval. The lactation curves obtained from the two groups correspond to two extremes; group 1 representing a natural lactation while in group 2 the milk production was manipulated by a strict milking regime. The two groups showed different shaped lactation curves. In group 1 the milk production peaked between wk 2-4 post-partum, with a maximum daily production of 1.2 kg at wk 3. The milk production decreased gradually until wk 24 where the calves were weaned. In group 2 the milk production peaked at wk 2 with a daily yield of 0.5 kg. However this peak was less distinct and the decrease in production after peak lactation was slighter than in group 1. The storage capacity in the udder was 0.5 kg. Milk secretion was stabile, and the quantity of milk in the udder was proportional with the time interval since previous milking, until the storage capacity was reached. This result was similar for does with calves, and for does without calves at different phases of the lactation. These experiments demonstrate the importance of a frequent emptying of udder on the cell differentiation- and profilation and hence milk production in the mammary gland. The difference in milk yield in the two groups suggests that commercial milk production in reindeer should be based on a system with partly suckling. To obtain maximum production the milk storage capacity in the udder must be taken into account when determining the time interval calves should be separated from does. Hence milking should be implemented before the udder is full.
Trine Moen Heggberget, Eldar Gaare & Per Jordhøy
Norwegian Institute of Nature research - NINA, Tungasletta 2, N-7485 Trondheim, Norway.
Berit Inga
Department of Animal Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden;
jtte Swedish Mountain and Sámi Museum, Box 116, SE-962 23 Jokkmokk, Sweden (berit.inga@ajtte.com).
The purpose of this paper is to describe the traditional Sami knowledge about how the reindeer use the landscape during May to October and how the reindeer herders use their knowledge in the work with the animals during the snow free period of the year. What is there opinion on how the reindeer use the mosaic of biotopes in their own Sami villages? Do they have any general idea on which type of habitat that is necessary for health and need of reindeer? Today the reindeer herders have less close connection to their animals than before the technical revolution of reindeer herding, and perhaps this knowledge run the risk of getting lost for the next generation.
My study is carried out in two mountain reindeer herding district in northern Sweden. Ten reindeer herders, born 1950 or earlier, were interviewed. They were asked to indicate on a map over their Sámi village the locations of reindeer at different time of the year (with different temperature, wind, rain and snow conditions), especially during the rutting and calving seasons. Also questions were asked if there are differences in behaviour among the reindeer according to age and sex. Important questions are for example: Do the reindeer herders use there knowledge in their practical work with the reindeer? Are their skill based on a good knowledge on the behaviour of reindeer?
Lotta Jaakkola, Timo Helle & Eero Mattila
The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, PL 16, FIN-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland (lotta.jaakkola@metla.fi).
The aim of the present research is to provide knowledge of the beard lichen (Alectoria spp., Bryoria spp., Usnea spp.) resources for the multiple objective forestry planning. As part of the landscape ecological planning the lichen resource data facilitates the spatial and temporal distribution of forestry procedures in a certain area and therefore enables to minimise the disadvantages for the reindeer husbandry caused by forestry practises.
In order to gain information on the historical aspects of the use of winter pastures, the first part of the research concentrates on the transition from winter herding to free ranging reindeer husbandry. It will be examined how this transition have been affected by changes in the natural environment i.e. the climatic factors, forest structure etc. as well as on the reindeer herding practises. The data, which consists of annual reports of reindeer herding districts, of reports of the reindeer pasture commission from the beginning of 20th century and of the interviews of the oldest reindeer herders in eight different reindeer herding districts will be collected during the winter and spring of 2002.
In the second part of the research, the correlation of the beard lichen biomasses on the growth site, forest structure as well as the vegetation will be examined. The inventory of beard lichen biomasses is conducted in the reindeer herding districts of Muonio, Hammastunturi and Alakitka in the summer of 2002. The aim of the biomass inventory is to examine the reliability of the subjective method for estimation of the abundance of beard lichens (classes 0-3) used in the reindeer pasture inventory in the Finnish Forest Inventory (FFI) for calculation of the total biomasses as well as of the biomasses accessible to reindeer. The gained information is used to calculate the beard lichen biomasses in the whole reindeer husbandry area using the data of four pasture inventories of FFI (1974-2004).
The lichen biomass data will be applied to model the correlation of the lichen abundance and stand characteristics. These models provide information of the site requirements of the beard lichens and can be used to predict the impact of the changes in the forest structure on the lichen biomasses. ArcInfo 8.1 program is used for the modelling. The biomass models are then applied to create production functions for the forestry planning programmes, in which case the important winter pastures will automatically be taken notice of in the forest planning processes.
In the last part of the research the impact of the integration of reindeer husbandry and timber production on the regional economics is examined by using MELA2000 - optimisation programme. In the programme the impact of restrictions on the forest use and its economical consequences are calculated.
The research is part of a larger project “Reindeer husbandry and changing environment” (2002-2006) co-ordinated from the Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station. In addition to the research presented above, the prolonged changes in the pastures as well as impact of climatic factors on the reindeer husbandry, concept of sustainability and the adaptability of reindeer husbandry are examined in the project.
Bernt Johansen & Stein Rune Karlsen
NORUT Inform. Techn., Tromsø Science Park, N-9291 Tromsø, Norway (bernt.johansen@itek.norut.no).
Reindeer herding in northern Scandinavia is associated with the Sami people. Traditionally, the local reindeer herding has been managed in perfect balance with the natural resources available. The migration of herds between coast and inland has provided access to high-quality food throughout the year and has protected the areas from overgrazing. During the past decades, this situation has changed. Today the rangeland ecosystems are exposed to a variety of serious threats. The decline in lichen cover due to reindeer overgrazing and subsequent soil erosion represent one of the main regional ecosystem changes experienced today. This presentation demonstrates the advantage of using remote sensing data in mapping and monitoring the reindeer winter ranges. The research fundamentals of this approach are based on the ability to distinguish lichen-rich communities from other vegetation types, sparsely vegetated areas, and bare soil. This distinction appears in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Data layers used in the study include Landsat TM/ETM+ images from the years 1987, 1996 and 2000, digital elevation models, field data, and digital topographic maps of forests, mires, water, and open areas. The satellite images covering the Finnmarksvidda area are used as the main information source for production of vegetation maps reflecting the vegetation status of the time periods selected. The overall operations in the production line are image classification, spectral similarity analysis, integration of ancillary data, and relating the products to a vegetation system valid for the study area. The final task is to create a change-detection map focusing on the decline in lichen-rich areas. In the production scheme, both image processing software and geographical information software are needed.
The decline in lichen cover on Finnmarksvidda is expressed through vegetation maps based on Landsat images from the years selected. The map describing the vegetation conditions in 1987 shows large areas of lichen heaths and woodlands in the winter districts. The total lichen cover here is estimated to 1562,4 km2. In the autumn districts lichen-rich constitute an area of 491,1 km2, respectively. In 1996 lichen-rich vegetations are more or less absent in the autumn districts, while in the winter areas the amount is reduced to approximately half the amount during the nine years passed. The map describing the conditions in 2000 shows a further decline in lichen cover. The distortion pattern of the lichen cover shows a decline from north to south. From the overall maps, selected sub-areas are described more detailed. Maps from the Lahppolouppal area, shows that in these northern parts of the winter areas, most of the lichen decline occurred in the period 1987-1996. In the southernmost areas, near the Norwegian-Finnish border, large areas of lichen heaths and woodlands are visible in the maps from both 1987 and 1996. In the year 2000, the lichen formations are more scattered and fragmented. Lichen-rich vegetations are only found in areas protected by dense snow cover during winter. When comparing vegetation statistics from selected sub-areas the decline in lichen cover are expressed more accurately. Vegetation statistics from all the autumn and winter districts are produced in this project.
Even though this project is limited to describe subtle changes in lichen cover on Finnmarksvidda, it also meets the specific need to develop a large-scale monitoring system for range areas in northern Scandinavia. In Norway a monitoring programme for the reindeer ranges was initiated in 1998. Satellite images were selected as the main information source for detection and assessment of environmental conditions and trends. NORUT Information Technology is responsible for preparing, processing and interpreting satellite data within this project. NINA is responsible for the field inventory part of the project.
Roger Kimo Jørgensen1 & Morten Tryland2
1Szt. Istvan University, Faculty of Veterinary Science, H-1078 Budapest, Hungary.
2The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
Paratuberculosis is a chronic, progressive enteric disease of ruminants caused by infection with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. It is characterised by chronic granulomatous lesions, typically concentrated in the terminal ileum, and often ends as a fatal enteritis. Loss of weight and fertility leads to severe economic loss. Oral infection through faeces of infected animals is the most important infection route (Cocito et al., 1994). Paratuberculosis has been diagnosed in wild ruminants in many European countries, and as become a problem in farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) (Nebbia et al., 2000; Godfroid et al., 2000).The diagnosis of subclinical paratuberculosis is not straightforward (Stabel et al., 1998). Bacterial culture is the most specific evidence of infection, but is time consuming and laborious. Serologic tests often lack both sensitivity and specificity and are hampered by cross-reacting agents. In slaughtered animals, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may confirm the presence of the bacteria in tissue. Successful eradication of paratuberculosis depends on removal of carrier animals from the herd, and treatment is rarely indicated.
References/Litteratur
Cocito, C., Gilot, P., Coene, M., de Kesel, M., Poupart, P. & Vannuffel, P. 1994. Paratuberculosis. – Clinical Microbiology Review 7:328-45. Nebbia, P., Robino, P., Ferroglio, E., Rossi, L., Meneguz, G., & Rosati, S. 2000. Paratuberculosis in red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus) in the western Alps. – Veterinary Research Communications 24: 435-43. Godfroid, J., Boelaert, F., Heier,A., Clavareau, C., Wellemans, V., Desmecht, M., Roels, S. & Walravens, K. (2000). First evidence of Johne's disease in farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Belgium. – Veterinary Microbiology 77: 283-90. Stabel, J. R. 1998. Johne´s disease: a hidden threat. – Journal of Dairy Science 81: 283-8.
Ann-Marie Karlsson
SLU, Institutionen för ekonomi, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden (annmarie.karlsson@scb.se).
The aim of this part of my research project is to study how import economical goals is for long time decisions and short time decisions.
Since several reindeer herders use an area of pasture the theories in the field of property rights and common property regimes are interesting. Ostrom, 1993 summarizes for example conditions in decision making that will lead to a long term successful use of a commonly owned resource, some of them are that the participants is a homogenous group when it comes to preferences, and that they have the same values about what the problems are and how to solve them. In decision theory a decision can be seen as process including several events. To summaries a problem in relation to goals and values has to be identified, alternative solutions have to be recognized and a choice based on the facts about the different solutions should be made.
Two questions where asked in a questionnaire that in 1999 was sent to a sample of reindeer herders. The response rate was 63%, and 297 reindeer herders answered both questions (see Table 1).
The preliminary results show that the reindeer herders have the same long term non economical goals. They want to continue with reindeer herding and it is also important for most reindeer herders that there children will continue there business. For most of the reindeer herders the receipts from the slaughter is important for there support. There is no relation between how important the economical goal each year is and the long-term goals of the importance of being a reindeer herder.
Table 1.
| How important is it for you to be a reindeer herder? | ||||
| How important is the economical outcome of each years slaughter for you? | I will stop as a reindeerherde if I can find a job with a better income | I can personally not think of stoping as a reindeer herder | I can personally not think of stoping as a reindeer herder and it is important that the next generation continues | Total |
| The receipts from the slaughter doesn’t affect my source of supply | 3 | 3 | 5 | 11 |
| The receipts from the slaughter gives a little contribution to my supply | 6 | 12 | 23 | 41 |
| The receipts from the slaughter are important but I also have income from employment | 3 | 29 | 28 | 60 |
| The combination of receipts from the slaughter, hunting and fishing are important for my supply | 5 | 30 | 62 | 97 |
| The receipts from the slaughter my determines my supply | 8 | 36 | 44 | 88 |
| Total | 25 | 109 | 162 | 297 |
Nicole Kemper1, Ansgar Aschfalk2, Mauri Nieminen3 & Christiane Höller1
1 Institute of Environmental Medicine and Hygienics, Kiel University, Brunswikerstr. 4, D-24105 Kiel, Germany (nkemper@hygiene.uni-kiel.de).
2 Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Tromsø, Norway.
3 Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.
Little is known about the occurrence of bacteria in reindeer husbandry, that have the potential to cause diseases not only in animals but also in humans. The analysis of the faecal shedding of pathogens, which may cause diseases like diarrhoe in humans, is important regarding risks of intensified reindeer herding. Especially calves are susceptible to these pathogens and outbreaks of disease may depend on different factors, such as a lowered immune defence capability. Therefore, and to test and improve the microbiological methodologies for further examinations for the EU project RENMAN (The Challenges of Modernity for Reindeer Mangement) faecal samples from 40 reindeer calves, about 4 weeks of age, of both genders, were collected in summer 2001. Due to difficulties in getting samples from diseased, free-ranging reindeer, and particularily from calves, samples were taken instead from clinically healthy animals kept at a research station. Subsequently, the faecal material was monitored for important enteropathogenic bacteria (Campylobacter spp., Enterococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Yersinia spp.) according to standard procedures. The presence of E. coli-virulence genes encoding shigatoxin 1 and 2 (stx 1,2), haemolysin (hly) and intimin (eae) was determined using PCR. An additional examination for enteropathogenic parasites, Cryptosporidium spp., was performed using Immunomagnetic Separation (IS). Enterococcus ssp. were found in 36 samples (90%) and the prevalence of E.coli was 100%. PCR-results revealed that two E. coli isolates (5%) carried the eae-gene and four isolates (10%) carried the hly-gene. The genes for stx 1 and stx 2 were not found. Yersinia enterocolitica was detected in one case (2,5%). The isolation of Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. showed no positive results and the IS for Cryptosporidium spp. was negative in all cases. Obviously, this is the first report on the isolation of Enterococcus spp. and of Yersinia enterocolitica in reindeer calves. Even though important enteropathogens such as Campylobacter, Salmonella or Cryptosporidium could not be isolated, the bacteria detected in this study can be considered of a risk of causing diseases as well in animal as in man. Regarding recommendations concerning intensified reindeer herding it is important to know about these risks.
Jorma Kemppainen, Juhani Kettunen & Mauri Nieminen
Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, FIN-00721 Helsinki, Finland.
In the northern Finland reindeer is utilized in many ways. It is a source of highly-priced meat products, one of the key attractions in the northern tourism and an important aspect of the public image of the region.
Lately, the production of reindeer meat has been about two million kilos per year, and the producer price approximately five euros per kilo. The processing of the meat has, as an average, tripled the net revenue. Today, there are about 30 meat processing firms, most of which are small, family owned businesses located in the countryside. About a half of the reindeer meat is retailed in super- and hypermarkets. The value of the meat retail sales has been about 36-37 million euros. The value of slaughter by-products and souvenirs made of reindeer has annually been about at 4-5 millions euros.
The utilization of reindeer in tourism is significant. There are 30-40 reindeer firms with the combined net sales about 17 million euros. The firms organize reindeer rides and -safaris. They organize shows of reindeer and reindeer herding and sell reindeer products.
Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute has started a project with the goal to study the economic utilization of reindeer. The project aims at promoting competitiveness of reindeer industry and bringing in knowledge that assists the development of the strategy for reindeer husbandry, decision-making and introducing new innovations and forms of activity.
The project started in December 2001 by publishing the preliminary report. In the report the forms and extent of economic utilization of reindeer are mapped out, reindeer products described and historical development of reindeer husbandry analyzed. During the last years the development aspects of reindeer husbandry have been fast reducing the amount of reindeer owners, increasing of winter feeding of reindeer and mushrooming small-scaled processing industry. In the last five years the amount of reindeer owners have reduced from 7200 to 5700 owners. The supplemental feeding of the animals has become common even in north. Today, the reindeer herding is based on natural pastures only in the most farthest areas.
In this year it is aim to design a research program concerning economic utilization of reindeer for years 2003-2007. The program will be carried out as a co-operative project under co-ordination of the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute. The main themes for research are 1) Reindeer husbandry as a part of society, 2) Production of reindeer meat, 3) Reindeer and tourism, 4) Reindeer products and 5) Subjects that aid research. Research program will be prepared by organizing seminars. Research program of economical utilization of reindeer will be ready in the beginning of the year 2003.
Heidi Kitti1 & Timo Kumpula2
1Arctic Centre, University of Lapland Rovaniemi, PL 122, FIN-96101 Rovaniemi (Heidi.Kitti@metla.fi).
2Department of Geography, University of Oulu, PL 3000, FIN 90014 Oulu.
Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is based on indigenous peoples’ own locally developed practices of resource use. Several examples in Canada illustrate the utility of applying TEK in the context of scientific research. It provides for a more holistic view by employing local ecological and historical knowledge of a particular area.
Remote sensing has been used in reindeer pasture inventories since 1980s. In these inventories, botanical fieldwork has been incorporated into remote sensing data. Pasture classes have been developed from visible patterns associated with different types of ground cover. Such inventories have provided geographic knowledge about quantity and quality of pastures in Lapland. The data in these studies have usually been derived Landsat TM images with 30 meter resolution.
The aim of the present study is to classify reindeer pastures in the Näkkälä reindeer herding district via systematic comparison of TEK and remote sensing data. These different types of knowledge are to be valued equally in the search for a more complete understanding of the pastures. This will serve to involve local people in the research and scenario development to anticipate and plan for future changes.
Methods used in studying TEK derive primarily from social sciences. They include thematic interviews and participant observation. The main themes are the seasonal exploitation of pastures throughout the year and qualitative classification of pastures. Reindeer herders will also map the areas grazed by their reindeer from their own perspective. Interviewing began in summer 2001 and will continue in winter and spring 2002.
Pasture inventory will be accomplished by using high resolution IKONOS 2 satellite images (4 meter resolution) and botanical ground truthing. Pasture type classification is based on vegetation types and their suitability as either summer or winter pasture. Fieldwork started in summer 2001 and will continue in summer 2002.
Maps based on herders’ knowledge will be translated into the GIS program (ARC/INFO). One option will be to compare herders’ maps to the remote sensing based maps. One interesting thing to see will be how winter and summer pasture resources differ according to these contrasting methods of mapping. The study aims to provide new knowledge regarding the utility of the latest remote sensing technology for creating high quality maps relevant to contemporary reindeer management. It will also make available new information about the factors that should be taken into account when employing remote sensing for reindeer pasture mapping in particular and pasture mapping in general.
Jouko Kumpula1, Stéphanie C. Lefrère2 & Mauri Nieminen1
1Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland (jouko.kumpula@rktl.fi).
2René Descartes University, Animal & Human Biosociology Department (Paris V)-12, rue de l’ecole de médicine, 75270 Paris Cedex 06.
In the main part of the winter reindeer has to forage in the snow. Although digging work (cratering) is an essential part of the foraging of reindeer in winter, relatively few studies have been made on it. Our aim was to investigate the technique, speed and amount of digging work and grazing by reindeer in woodland lichen pasture. From the middle of February 2001 until the end of April altogether eight unpregnant reindeer females were kept on freely grazing in the fenced area (20 ha) in the reindeer research station, in Kaamanen. Two third of the fenced area were dry pine forest in which the amount of lichens in the previous autumn was on average 600 kg DM/ha. Digging work, foraging and activity of reindeer were observed and measured on the daytime (from dark to dark) during the two separate periods on February (15 days) and April (19 days). Body mass of reindeer and snow conditions were monitored during the experiment. There were very easy snow conditions in winter 2000-2001. Snow depth on lichen pasture inside the fence was on average 31.1 cm and snow density 159 g/dm3 on the beginning of February. On the beginning of April, snow depth was 41.8 cm and snow density 239 g/dm3. During the daytime on February reindeer spent 39.8% digging/grazing, 1.0% browsing, 21.0% lying, 25.9% standing and 12.3% walking/running. On April, they spent 29.8% digging/grazing, 5.2% browsing, 40.3% lying, 15.4% standing and 9.3% walking/running. During the actual grazing period, reindeer foraged (dug and grazed) within a certain repeated rhythm, which total length was on average 30.2 s on February and 35.9 s on April. Within this rhythm on February, reindeer made first on average 6.8 pawings and then used 21,5 s for grazing. On April, reindeer made first on average 9.5 pawings and then used 29.4 s for grazing. The speed of pawing was on average 1.5 pawings/s on February and 1.7 pawings/s on April. During the digging work, reindeer used both of the front foots equally. Size of the grazed area within a single crater was on average 1.51 m2 on February (snow depth mean in crater 38,3 cm) and 1.40 m2 on April (snow depth mean in crater 44,3 cm). Size of the grazed area within a single crater (m2) was dependent on the total foraging time (s) used per crater (R2=0.51, y=-0.008x+0.0196x0,9, n=35, P<0.001). the mean body mass of reindeer was 67.1±2,67 kg on the mid of february and 64,9±2,98 kg on end of april. if the reindeer had foraged in same way during the whole 24 hours as observed on the daytime, reindeer would have dug and grazed ca. 66 m2/24 h/one reindeer during the observation period on february when the mean weight change of reindeer was actually +50,0 g/24 h/one reindeer. calculated in the same way, reindeer would have dug and grazed ca. 59 m2/24 h/one reindeer during the observation period on april when the mean weight change of reindeer was –26,3 g/24 h/one reindeer.
Timo Kumpula, Angela Manderscheid & Alfred Colpaert
Department of Geography,University of Oulu, PL 3000, 90014 Oulu, Finland (timo.kumpula@oulu.fi).
Intensive grazing causes changes to pastures. Difference in grazing intensity is not easy to detect from satellite images. Grazing intensity are more visible in treeless areas. This is the case in Northern Lapland and the Tibetan plateau. Usually ungulates like yaks and reindeer forage mainly the vegetation of the field layer. Ground lichens (Cladina sp.) are important winter forage to reindeer. When the percent coverage of lichens is high, lichen pastures are visible in satellite images with whitish shades. In Tibetan plateau grasslands yaks and sheep browse grasses, forbs and sedges. Grazed or ungrazed pastures are possible to detect comparing intensity of near infrared (NIR) reflectance in satellite images. In grazed areas NIR amount is lower and vice versa.
Grazing intensity may become visible if there is some natural (eg. rivers, lakes, mountain ridges) or manmade barrier that divides pastureland. Most common manmade barriers in are fences. Fences can be set up for pasture separation into winter and summer areas or to separate herding communities. Borders between countries are in many cases fenced to prevent humans and animals from crossing.
Our research area on the Tibetan plateau, Dzoge, much of the pastures have been divided between the nomadic families. The fencing of the areas has been intensive since the middle of 1990s. Especially winter and summer pastures have been separated. The increase of the herd size has affected on pasture condition and there are many visible signs of erosion and degradation in satellite images and in the field.
In Finland differences in grazing intensity between herding districts are in most cases not visible. However along the border area between Finland and Norway the difference between grazing intensity is clearly visible in satellite images. The reindeer fence along the border was built in the 1950s. The Finnish side has been both in summer and winter use while the Norwegian pastures are only used in winter. Trampling and overgrazing by reindeer has degraded Finnish lichen pastures.
In the forest area of Finnish Lapland forestry is the main land user that affects pastures. Clear cuts area visible in satellite images tens of years after harvesting timber. Forest management includes also extensive road building to remote areas.
Stéphanie C. Lefrère1,2 Jouko Kumpula2 & Mauri Nieminen2
1 René Descartes University, Animal & Human Biosociology Department (Paris V)- 12, rue de l´école de médecine – 75270 Paris Cedex 06, France (stephanie.lefrere@rktl.fi).
2 Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.
Our main aim was to figure out if hierarchy would change in a female group according to dominance relationships throughout three different types of interactions: aggressiveness, theft of crater and positive contacts between individuals (for ex. cares, tolerate proximity). At same time we studied activities and feeding behaviour at crater sites. For instance, we tried to look if there were differences in activities between individuals with different social rank.
8 female reindeer, living on natural food in a 15 ha enclosure in the fence of the Reindeer Research Station (FGFRI) were studied at two different periods (February and April) in winter 2000-2001. Altogether 5 females were also equipped with heart rate system in order to record cardiac rhythm during one week in each observation period.
Activities were collected through 15 minutes focus on each individual. Thus, observed variables were digging a crater, walking, running, standing, laying, browsing. Social dominance was studied by the mean of 30 minutes scanning of the group from 2 to 5 hours per day in order to establish the hierarchy and its evolution between two months. Patterns as aggressiveness and accessibility to crater, leadership in the group, initiation of main activities were considered.
Veikko Maijala, Harri Norberg, Jouko Kumpula & Mauri Nieminen
Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, Fin-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.
Calf production is an important measure for reindeer husbandry in Finland. From the 1970's calf slaughter developed to a main production strategy, and nowadays over 70% of all slaughtered reindeer are calves. Calf production (calves/100 hinds) varies temporally and spatially. There is also large variation in the mean slaughter weight of calves in different parts of the Finnish reindeer herding area. Stochastic mechanisms such as weather conditions may strongly affect reproduction, survival and weight gain in reindeer stock. However, there are also many other important factors such as annual herd structure, management strategies, condition of pastures, maternal characteristics and qualities of offspring, which should be studied. Also predation needs to be studied in connection with calf production. The aim of this study was to study calf production in nine Finnish reindeer herding districts by assessing pregnancy rates, calf-% during summer and slaughter season, and rates and causes of mortality during 1999-2001.
The study reindeer were marked individually: hinds with numbered plastic collars and calves with plastic ear-tags. In three of the study districts calves were also equipped with mortality indicating radio transmitters fixed in flexible collar. The total number of hinds in the study was 4455 in 1999-2001. Altogether 1255 calves were fitted with mortality transmitters during 1999-2001, and 2 145 were marked with ear-tags. Survival of marked calves was followed using telemetry in the field and recording presence/absence -data at round-ups (both ear-marking and slaughter). Weighing and measurements of study animals were carried out before and at calving in spring, in connection with earmarking during summer and at round-ups during autumn and winter. Slaughter weights of marked calves were collected with assistance of the reindeer herding districts. The pregnancy rates were studied using ultrasound device in eight reindeer herding districts in January 2000.
Pregnancy rate of total 1265 hinds was 92.8% (range by districts 85.2-97.4%). Young hinds (2-3-year old) had lower pregnancy rates (87.0%) compared with older hinds (4-10-years old: 94.1%; >10-years old: 94.6%). The calf-% of studied hinds in the earmarking of the subsequent summer in 2000 was on average 83% (n=1 373 hinds, 7 districts; range by district 61-91%), and 85% (n=803 hinds, 4 districts; range 72-90%) in 2001. The eventual calf production was recorded in conjunction with round-ups, and was on average 76% in the whole studied group of hinds (n=1 315, 8 districts; range 49-89%) in 2000 and 73% (n=634, 4 districts; range 57-83%) in 2001.
Both live and slaughter weights of calves in the group of young hinds (2-3-year old) were significantly lower (P<0.001) compared with calves of older hinds. The autumn weights of calves reared by hinds in good body condition during previous autumn were higher compared with calves of hinds in moderate/low body condition (P<0.01). Calves born earlier and with higher birth weight had higher autumn weights compared to calves born later and smaller. The hinds with better body condition were heavier compared to those with lower body condition (P<0.001).
Calf mortality in different study areas varied between 3-22% in 1999-2001. According to the results from telemetry studies in the northern district of Ivalo, the most significant single cause of mortality was predation by golden eagle (41% of all mortality cases among radio-collared calves), while in the southeastern district of Oivanki the biggest mortality factor was brown bear (17% of mortality cases). However, additional 50% of all observed cases of mortality in Oivanki were connected with brown bear, but due to inadequate calf remains were classified unknown. In Ivalo mortality was evenly distributed between June-August, but in Oivanki most of the dead calves were found during first two weeks after radio-collaring in May-June. Calf weight at birth and at earmarking was the only character of radio-collared calves explaining their survival. The summer weight of the calves killed by golden eagles in Ivalo (8.9 kg, S.D.=1.7, n=16) was significantly lower compared with calves that survived (11.7 kg, SD=2.7, n=586; P<0.001). The birth weights of bear-killed calves in Oivanki (6.8 kg, SD=0.6, n=6) were lower than weights of calves that survived (7.3 kg, SD=1.1, n=132), but the group means did not differ significantly (P=0.275). However, when cases with bear scavenging and confirmed bear-kills were combined, the mean birth weight of calves in combined group (6.7 kg, SD=0.9, n=24) differed significantly from calves that survived (P=0.012).
Roger Malm1, Jon Moen1 & Öje Danell2
1Dept. of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden.
2Dept. of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7023, SE-750 07 Uppsala.
A scientifically-based grazing management strategy is dependent on quantitative data of the status and dynamics of the natural resource that is being used. A critical factor in the management of grazing grounds for reindeer is the amount of ground lichens present on the winter grazing grounds. In order to estimate reindeer lichen biomass, non-destructive measures must be used, i.e. biomass must be calculated from cover and/or lichen thallus height measured in the field. This requires known and verifiable relationships between cover and biomass for the species of interest.
We studied four important food species for reindeer: Cladina stellaris, Cladina arbuscula, Cladina rangiferina, and Cetraria islandica. For each species we measured cover and lichen thallus height in 50 x 50 cm quadrats and harvested the lichens for dry weight measurements of biomass. The quadrats were subjectively chosen so that they were as close to monocultures as possible and so that the entire gradient from heavily grazed to thick lichen mats were included. We measured cover through five different methods for each quadrat: visual estimates of cover, presence/absence in a grid of 36 small squares (lichens present, covering at least 50% of the square, or covering 100% of the square), and by contact with 25 points in a point-frame. Lichen thallus height was measured with the pin used in the point-frame, and estimated as a mean of all 25 points, a mean of five points, or by one point. This gives 15 combinations of cover and height to calculate volume which were then compared with biomass through linear regressions.
The explained variance was generally very high in all regressions (usually in the order of 80-90%). No indications of non-linear relationships were found. All measurements of cover, except presence/absence with a 100% cover threshold, gave similarly strong relationships. However, the explained variance decreased rapidly with less good estimates of lichen height, i.e. with fewer points to estimate height. We also regressed the measurements of mean lichen height based on 25 points per quadrat on biomass which gave an equally strong relationship as when volume was regressed on biomass. Relationships for the three Cladina-species were generally very similar while the relationship for the Cetraria-species was slightly different.
Based on these results we suggest a monitoring method where lichen thallus height is measured in a random or regular sampling scheme over the area of interest. From these measurement, mean thallus height is calculated and lichen biomass is estimated from the linear regressions.
Jarno Mikkola1, Virve Väisänen1, Alfred Colpaert1, Jouko Kumpula2, Marja Anttonen1, Mauri Nieminen2 & Olavi Heikkinen1
1Oulun yliopisto, Maantieteen laitos, PL 3000, FIN-90014 Oulun yliopisto, Finland (jarno.mikkola@oulu.fi).
2Riista- ja kalatalouden tutkimuslaitos (RKTL), Porotutkimusasema, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.
Changes in reindeer herding and other forms of land use have affected reindeer husbandry in many ways. Intensified utilization of land resources threatens the undergrowth, state of forests and the nature as a whole. Both internal and external development and pressure are a cause of continuous change of reindeer husbandry. Thus studying pastures is important to maintain the sustainable use of pastures. It has recently been stressed in the Finnish media, that studying interactions and linkages between various forms of land use is important as well. The main objective of this study is to analyse interactions between reindeer husbandry and other use of natural resources and to adjust them together in a sustainable way. Study area consists of four reindeer management districts in Northern Finland. The aim is to develop a theoretical model for a land use interaction analysis system (LUIAS) to evaluate and valuate the various uses of natural resources in respect to reindeer husbandry. The model will be versatile taking into account possible biological, economical and reindeer management components. LUIAS-model will be extended to fit other forms of land use by changing the key land use in the model, and tested by using empirical data. Geographical Information System (GIS) will be an integral tool in data acquisition and description. The practical application of this project is to provide information beneficial to reduce competition and conflicts between reindeer management, silviculture and other land use administrations and thus help different human activities to adapt to each other and to the carrying capacity of the area.
Jon Moen1, Lars Edenius2 & Karin Aune1
1Dept. of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden (jon.moen@eg.umu.se).
2Dept of Wildlife Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden.
Future global climate changes has the potential of drastically changing vegetation patterns in the Swedish mountains. This project focuses on potential changes in the position of the alpine tree-line in the Swedish mountains on a 100-year perspective based on regional climate models developed by SWECLIM. We assumed that the position of the tree-line is climate-driven, that mountain birch has the potential to respond rapidly to changes in climate, and that changes in climate will result in a shift in tree-line position. Two climate scenarios were used which both predict changes in the mean monthly temperature during summer in a 44 by 44 km grid. The position of the tree-line, i.e. where continuous mountain birch forest gives way to tree-less heaths, was determined from digital maps and a digital elevation model. We then used a lapse rate of 0.6o per 100 m altitudinal difference to calculate changes in the position of the tree-line. The analysis incorporates the entire mountain chain in Swedish, but for the purpose of this poster we will exemplify with data from Marsfjället, Västerbotten.
Predictions from the climate scenarios for this area varied between 1.9o and 3.5o increase in the mean temperature, which translates into an altitudinal increase of mountain birch forests from 317 to 583 altitudinal meters. This will mean that only 7.5% to 0.4% of tree-less alpine heaths will be left in the area, which constitutes a major change in the alpine ecosystem. Even a much more conservative estimate of a 100 m altitudinal increase will result in loss of more than half of the alpine heath area.
We know that some of our assumptions will not hold, but we have no data with which we can quantify how much the results will diverge from the current ones. For instance, reindeer grazing during the summer may stop, or at least slow down, the upward increase of the mountain birches by consuming saplings, but we do not know how many reindeer are needed or the time-scale of the responses.
To conclude, climate change has a great potential of completely changing our alpine ecosystem with large effects on land use patterns, such as reindeer husbandry and tourism.
Erling Moxnes1, Öje Danell2, Eldar Gaare3 & Jouko Kumpula4
1Informasjonsvitenskap, Universitetet i Bergen, Norway (Erling.Moxnes@ifi.uib.no).
2Dept of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
3Norsk institutt for naturforskning NINA), Trondheim, Norway.
4Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institut (RKTL), Reindeer Research Station, Kaamanen, Finland.
In the decision-tool we focus on the adaptation of reindeer herds to available food resources in a district, i.e. to the availability and quality of winter and summer pastures. Previous studies have found that practical management is complicated by the dynamics involved and by a lack of precise information. Furthermore, formal analyses to find optimal herd sizes, to find optimal learning strategies, are both complicated to carry out and difficult to explain to decision-makers. Hence one is faced with an information problem.
Here we present a decision-tool which can capture the essence of earlier normative studies, and be sufficiently simple that it can be used in practice. In short, the decision-tool helps organise time-series information such that it becomes directly useful for decision-making. The derivation of the decision-tool with its equa-tions is not easy to popularise. However, to foster active and correct use, a training simulator goes along with the decision-tool. Hopefully, the simulator will help build the intuition needed without the explicit knowledge of underlying mathematics.
We present case studies from the Nordic countries where the tool has been used. The tool and the simulator will be available for testing at the conference.
Mauri Nieminen1, Jouko Kumpula1 & Alfred Colpaert2
1Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland (mauri.nieminen@rktl.fi).
2University of Oulu, Dept. of Geography, FIN-90570 Oulu, Finland (alfred.colpaert@oulu.fi).
The wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus) were reintroduced from Kuhmo (today about 2000 individuals) to Salamajärvi area in central Finland 1979 and 1980. The main population from which these reindeer originated, comprising 6000-10 000 individuals, lives in Russian Karelia. The reintroduced wild reindeer were kept in a 15-ha enclosure of Koirasalmi in Kivijärvi until 1984, but their offsprings released into wild since 1981. At present there are about 900 wild forest reindeer in Salamajärvi area in central Finland.
Knowledge about quantity and quality of pastures and also the amount of natural forage resources of wild forest reindeer in the new area are important. This pasture inventory was conducted in Salamajärvi area in 1996. A total of 136 field test sites were evaluated. Pasture condition and amount of forage plants was evaluated on the basis of these test sites. Pasture types and areal extend were mapped using Landsat 5 TM satellite images. The images were classified using supervised classification methods. The land area and the quantity of lichens ranges were calculated using ARC/INFO software. Autumn and winter pasture areas, amount of forage plants and condition of pastures and also the amount of forage resources available per wild reindeer were compared to the previous inventory results in the whole reindeer herding area and especially to the results of the southernmost Halla co-operative.
According to the classification, the lichen-dominated ranges covered 21.3% and arboreal lichen ranges (old and mature conifer forests) 19.2% of whole inventoried area (253 109 ha). The whole bog area was 106 066 ha (41.9% of inventoried area) and deciduous forest area 25 129 ha (9.9%), both of them are important summer pastures for wild forest reindeer. The proportion of bogs in whole Finnish reindeer herding area is on average 34.5% and in Halla co-operative 39.3% (Kumpula et al., 1999). The mean percent cover of lichens was 27,8%, mean height 46.1 mm and calculated biomass 1196.0 kg/ha on lichen pastures. The proportions of different lichen species on lichen cover were: Cladina rangiferina 46.2%, Cladina mitis 30.9%, Cladina stellaris 5.0%, Cladonia uncialis 0.7 and Cladonia spp. 1.4%. The available amount of arboreal lichens (under 2 meters) was 1.0-1.4 kg/ha in different pine forests and 5.8 kg/ha in spruce forests. The proportions of different grasses and Deschampsia flexuosa (hair grass) were 4.7 and 5.9% on lichen pastures. Grass dominated cutting area was 8.8% of inventoried area, and mean amount of Deschampsia flexuosa was 792 kg/ha in cutting areas, 162 kg/ha in young pine forests and 422 kg/ha in deciduous forest areas.
The inventory results indicate, that lichen pastures in Salamajärvi area were in good condition especially on very dry pine forests, and especially calculated biomass of lichens was much higher than values in Finnish reindeer herding area and also in Halla co-operative nearby Kuhmo wild forest reindeer area. The mean percent cover of lichens on lichen pastures in whole reindeer herding area was 27.6%, mean height 18,1 mm and calculated biomass only 349.0 kg/ha. In Halla co-operative the respective averages were 34.1%, 35.6 mm and 799.4 kg/ha (Kumpula et al., 1997).
Antti Oksanen
National Veterinary and Food Research Institute EELA, Oulu Regional Unit, P.O.Box 517, FIN-90101 Oulu, Finland (antti.oksanen@eela.fi).
Echinococcus granusosus is a cestode parasite species (or a species group) having canid carnivores as definitive hosts and various herbivores as intermediate hosts. The infection is considered harmless and symptom-free in the definitive host, but in the intermediate host, the parasite causes so-called hydatid cysts in lungs or other internal organs. Humans may serve as accidental intermediate hosts following ingestion of parasite eggs originating from definitive host faeces. Even 15 litre hydatid cysts have been reported. Apparently, the dog/sheep cycle strain parasite is the one most dangerous to humans.The “cervid strain”, also referred to as E. granulosus canadensis, is regarded as circumpolar, but the genetic similarities and differences between North American and Eurasian parasites are still unresolved. In Canada, the parasite appears to be very common in the moose (Alces alces), with prevalences from 30% to 60% having been reported. However, based on published reports, cystic echinococcosis is not regarded as a serious public health hazard in Canada.
Echinococcosis has been known in northern Norway for a century, but clinical human cases have been rare. However, in the 1950s, 17 cases were recorded amongst the 1700 people of Kautokeino. In reindeer, infection was common, with 10% prevalence in 2200 reindeer investigated on slaughter. As the parasite clearly had a dog/reindeer cycle, control was based on treating dogs with arecoline and later praziquantel, and improving slaughter hygiene to prevent dogs from being infected. This worked very well, and in 1975/76, the prevalence had decreased to 1.5%, and in 1980/81 to 0.1%. In Sweden, a prevalence of 1.6% was reported in the early 1970s. In the late 1990s a few reindeer were found infected in Sweden.
In Finland, situation was rather similar to that in Sweden, until in the 1990s, meat inspection started to reveal infected reindeer in the easternmost parts of the Finnish reindeer husbandry area. The number of infected animals has varied around 10 of the about 100 000 reindeer slaughtered yearly. No infected dogs have been found in spite of active search. In the wolf, in the other hand, parasites have been demonstrated. In Jona in the western part of Kola Peninsula, local veterinarians told in 1997 that water-filled cysts were frequent in the lungs of slaughtered reindeer. They also told that wolves were common in the area.
In 2001, moose lungs were collected from hunters from different districts in Finland, including Kuusamo, which is in the middle of the area where reindeer cases have been found. Amongst the 50 animals from Kuusamo, one adult moose cow was found infected. The National Food Agency has recently requested a risk assessment of E. granulosus in Finland. The assessment will be prepared by an expert group with members from research institutions EELA, METLA (Finnish Forest Researh Institute), the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute and the University of Helsinki. Emphasis will be given to matters such as the safety of wild berries and mushrooms and to the treatment of moose offals, for example.
Jani Rytkönen1, Kaija Valkonen1, Tapani Alatossava1 & Mauri Nieminen2
1Biotechnology Laboratory, University of Oulu, FIN-88600, Sotkamo, Finland.
2Reindeer Research Station, Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, FIN-99910, Kaamanen, Finland.
Betalactoglobulin (BLG) is the main whey protein in most ruminants. In its native state BLG consists of two identical subunits (162 amino acids) with a molecular mass of 18 kDa. BLG does not appear in human milk and is therefore among the first foreign proteins children are disposed to. Since the immunologic system of young children is in the process of development, bovine BLG may cause allergic reactions that affect up to 2-5% of infants thus making cow's milk allergy (CMA) one of the most significant food allergies. Our aim was to purify BLG from reindeer milk and to characterize its biochemical properties, and later on by using this data to investigate its allergenic potential.
Reindeer milk was obtained from the Reindeer Research Station (Kaamanen, Finland). Milk fat was removed by centrifugation, and caseins and other whey proteins by isoelectric precipitations at pH 4.6 and at pH 2 while BLG remained in the supernatant and was further purified by gel filtration (Superdex-75) and by ion-exchange chromatography (Uno Q-1). Isolated BLG was characterized with 12% SDS-PAGE, native PAGE and isoelectric focusing, and was identified with polyclonal antisera to bovine BLG. The amino-terminal sequence of purified BLG was determined with the ABI 477 A sequensator (University of Turku, Finland). Amino acid analyses were performed at Commonwealth Biotechnologies inc. (Richmond, VA, USA).
BLG isolated from reindeer milk by using isoelectric precipitations, gel filtration, and ion-exchange chromatography was pure and free of other reindeer milk proteins. Estimated BLG concentration in reindeer milk was about two to four g/l while the respective value for bovine milk BLG is about three g/l. The amino acid composition of reindeer milk BLG resembles that of bovine milk BLG. Interesting is that reindeer milk BLG seems to contain only three cysteines, while the bovine BLG contains five cysteines. This may affect the three dimensional structure of reindeer BLG since cysteines play an important role in the formation of the three-dimensional structure of BLG. The sequence homology between reindeer and bovine milk BLG is at the same level as with the other ruminants (some 90%), since only three differing amino acids were found among the 26 N-terminal amino acids of reindeer and bovine BLG investigated in this study.The molecular mass of reindeer milk BLG is about 18 kDa, as estimated by gel filtration, amino acid composition and SDS-PAGE, and is similar to that of bovine milk BLG. The isoelectric point of reindeer milk BLG estimated by isoelectric focusing was about 4.9 and is lower compared to that of bovine BLG. To summarize the molecular masses of both reindeer and bovine BLG are similar, but the isoelectric points differ indicating charge differences between the two proteins. Interesting is also that only one non-glycosylated genetic variant was detected in BLG purified from reindeer milk. Since the antisera to bovine BLG cross-reacted with BLG isolated from reindeer milk, some immunological characteristics of reindeer and bovine milk BLG probably resemble each other. To our knowledge BLG has not been isolated previously from reindeer milk. However, further studies are needed to examine if the structural differences detected in this study affect the allergenic properties of reindeer milk BLG as compared to those of bovine milk BLG.
Lars Rönnegård1, Pär Forslund2 & Öje Danell1
1Dep. of Animal Breeding and Genetics, SLU, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden (lars.ronnegard@hgen.slu.se).
2Dep of Conservation Biology, SLU, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
The objective of our investigation was to obtain life-time patterns of female weight, reproduction and offspring weight, and to obtain a comprehensive picture of the relationships between these traits. Our results are aimed for parameterization of age-structured simulation models of herd dynamics. We used data recorded between 1986 and 1997 in the herding community of Ruvhten Sijte (formerly Tännäs Sameby) in Sweden. The data consisted of 8056 observations of calf weights with mother’s age known and 3449 observations of adult female weights. A female reproducing the previous year weighed 3.1 kg (s.e. 0.3) less than non-reproducing females. The regression coefficient of calf autumn weight on female weight the previous winter was 0.26 (s.e.0.02). The average difference in autumn weight between male and female calves was 2.86 kg (s.e. 0.20), but was less for calves with mothers aged 2 to 4 years. The calving percentage for females aged 4 to 10 years was 73%. Calving percentage was calculated as the percentage of females weighed in winter with calf the following summer. We also obtained clear patterns of: female weight for ages 1 to 10 years, calving percentage for 2- to 11-year-old females and calf weights for 1- to 15-year-old mothers.
Sabine Sampels, Jana Pickova & Eva Wiklund
SLU; Department of Food Science, Box 7051, 750 07 Uppsala, Sverige (sabine.sampels@lmv.slu.se).
Reindeer husbandry in Scandinavia is a pastoral system for meat production. Natural pasture is the most common feed source for reindeer, but sometimes the animals are fed commercial feed mixtures (pellets) in combination with hay, silage or lichens to reduce radioactive caesium in the meat or to improve carcass grading scores and slaughter weights. In earlier studies of the sensory properties of reindeer meat, where we used a trained expert panel as well as consumer preference tests, we have found that the flavour of reindeer meat was affected by the type of feed the animals had consumed (Wiklund et al, 2002). In a pilot-study we also demonstrated how the fatty acid composition in reindeer meat was affected by feeding regimen (Wiklund et al., 2001).
A total of 16 reindeer calves (8 males and 8 females, age about 10 months) were included in the study. The animals had been fed a commercial pelleted feed mixture (Renfor Bas, Lantmännen Fori, Holmsund, Sweden) for two months before slaughter. At slaughter (about 45 min post mortem) samples were taken from the right hand side M. semimembranosus and frozen immediately at -20 0C. The day after slaughter the whole left hand side M. semimembranosus was cut out, divided in two pieces and one of the pieces was randomly chosen for warm smoking. Before smoking, a salt solution was injected into the meat and the curing period lasted for 3 days. The meat was then rinsed and dried at 40 0C for about 2 hours, before it was smoked at 80 0C until a core temperature of 65 0C was obtained. When the meat had cooled down, samples were collected and frozen at -20 0C. The samples were transported to SLU, Uppsala and finally frozen at 0C until analysis.
The fatty acid composition of the samples was analysed by gas chromatography (GC). The fat was extracted with a solution of hexane and isopropanol (3:2). Before chromatography, the total lipids were separated into neutral lipid and polar lipid classes and then methylated. Vitamin E (a- and y-tocopherol) and vitamin A (retinol) was measured by HPLC. The meat samples were homogenised with methanol and ascorbic acid. Potassium hydroxide solution was used for saponification and the samples were heated for 20 min at 70 0C. The vitamins were then extracted with hexane. For analysis the solvent was evaporated and the vitamins solubilised in the mobile phase (95% methanol: acetonitrile (1:1) and 5% chloroform).
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are much more prone to oxidation than saturated fatty acids (SFA), which makes all types of meat with high PUFA content much more sensitive to any kind of processing and storage. However, in the present study, the amount of unsaturated fatty acids did not decrease as much as expected in the smoked samples compared with the fresh ones. This could be due to the added ascorbate (vitamin C) during the curing process, as ascorbate acts as an antioxidant. On the other hand, the content of retinol and y-tocopherol was reduced significantly by the smoking process.
From the present study we can conclude that the smoking process used seemed to be gentle and did not change the nutritional value of the meat as much as we had expected.
References
Wiklund, E., Pickova, J., Sampels, S & Lundström. K. 2001. Fatty acid composition of M. longissimus lumborum, ultimate muscle pH values and carcass parameters in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L) grazed on natural pasture or fed a commercial feed mixture. – Meat Science 58: 293-298. Wiklund, E., Johansson, L., Rødbotten, M. & Malmfors, G. 2002. Sensory meat quality, ultimate pH values and carcass characteristics in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L) grazed on natural pasture or fed a commercial feed mixture. (submitted for publication).
Per Sandström1, Leif Hemberg2 & Tina Granqvist Pahlén1
1 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics,
S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden (per.sandstrom@resgeom.slu.se).
2 The County Forestry Board of Västerbotten, Volgasjöv. 27, S-912 32 Vilhelmina, Sweden (leif.hemberg@svsac.svo.se).
This project was initiated by the County Forestry Board of Västerbotten (SVS) and the County Board of Västerbotten (LST) who invited Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) to participate. Additional funding was provided through the RESE project for SLU’s contribution. Involved Sami Villages (sw: sameby) throughout the project period were members of Malå and Vilhelmina Norra Sami Villages. The project represents a user oriented effort largely dependent on the work carried out by the sameby-members. Two specific objectives of this project were to develop methods and to produce material which would provide information to:
The goals are achieved by carrying out vegetation classifications, digital mapping, and field inventories.
Education of the participants is a central part of the project. SLU together with Norwegian Institute of Nature Research (NINA) have held both GIS and field-methods courses for the participants. To accomplish the objective of facilitating consultations between different land users, we first developed a protocol to identify and map important key habitat resources in reindeer management. Sameby members who had the most knowledge of each area digitized boundaries for the different categories of key habitat areas with a multispectral satellite image as background. The satellite images proved very helpful in this mapping work despite the users having had no prior experience with viewing satellite images. This effort represents the first attempt to provide a detailed view of specific areas of importance for reindeer husbandry, an effort that has already proven useful in land use consultations. Key habitat areas have been identified throughout both samebys and field work is completed for the wintering grounds. Field workers included personnel from Malå Sameby and Vilhelmina Norra Sameby as well as SVS.
We produced manuals for standardizing identification of key habitat areas and fieldwork. Work has also began to produce a RenGIS, which is a custom made and user friendly GIS to facilitate efficient use of a completed Renbruksplan.
Anna Skarin1*, Öje Danell1, Roger Bergström2 & Jon Moen3
1Department of animal breeding and genetics – reindeer husbandry unit, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden. * (Anna.Skarin@hgen.slu.se).
2Department of Animal Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-90183 Umeå, Sweden.
3Dept. of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Umeå University, S-901 87 Umeå, Sweden.
Habitat use of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) is assumed to depend on several factors, e.g. the time of the year, the availability of forage, harassment by insects, humans and predators. Hence, habitat choice is controlled by factors at different spatial and temporal scales. Here we report attempts to measure the influence of weather on the reindeer habitat choice in Idre and Mittådalen reindeer herding districts. We predicted that reindeer would occupy slopes with the same aspect as the direction of the wind in order to find relief from insects and heat. During eight days in the middle of June 2001, direct observations of reindeer were done above the timberline in the two areas. The probabilities of finding reindeer on the different aspects depending on weather were estimated by nominal logistic regressions. There was higher probability for the reindeer to be on the southern slopes (P=0.25 in Idre and P=0.80 in Mittådalen) than on the northern slopes (P=0.05 resp. P=0.015) if the wind was northern and strong >5 m/s). This was opposite of what we expected. An explanation might be that this early in the summer forage was better on the southern slopes than on the northern slopes. The temperature was also low when the wind was strong so there was less need to find relief from the insects or from the heat. The wind could also have been strong enough to keep all the slopes insect-free. When the wind was light (<5 m/s) and temperature higher the southern and the eastern slopes were preferred almost independent of the wind direction, although there seemed to be a preference for higher altitudes.
Päivi Soppela1*, Minna Turunen1, Ulla Heiskari2, Bruce Forbes1, Pekka Aikio3, Hannu Magga4, Marja-Liisa Sutinen5,6, Birgitta Åhman7, Timo Helle5, Mauri Nieminen8, Esko Kyrö9, Kaisa Lakkala9, Satu Huttunen10 & Christian Uhlig11
1Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. * (psoppela@urova.fi).
2 University of Helsinki, Department of Animal Sciences, Finland.
3 Lappi Reindeer Herding Co-operative and Sami Parliament, Sodankylä, Finland.
4 Lappi Reindeer Herding Co-operative, Vuotso, Finland.
5 Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi, Finland.
6 Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kolari, Finland.
7 SLU, Reindeer Husbandry Unit, Uppsala, Sweden.
8 Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, Kaamanen, Finland.
9 Finnish Meteorological Institute, Arctic Research Centre, Sodankylä, Finland.
10 University of Oulu, Department of Biology, Finland
11 The Norwegian Crop Research Institute, Tromsoe, Norway.
The aim of the proposed research is to investigate the effects of UV-radiation on chemical composition, palatability and digestibility of summer pasture plants of reindeer. The studies are planned to be conducted in natural peatland ecosystems with (I) enhanced UV-B radiation, provided by UV-B lamps (Sodankylä, Finnish Meteorological Institute, FUVIRC sites) and (II) with UV- filtration experiments with the same plant species in reindeer pastures in the Lappi Reindeer Herding Co-operative in Eastern Finnish Lapland (RENMAN experimental sites). A pilot study was conducted in 2001 in the Lappi co-operative where plant species and sampling schedule were determined and proportional species composition from ambient control sites was calculated. Plant species included Betula nana, Eriophorum vaginatum, E. angustifolium, Menyanthes trifoliata, Rubus chamaemorus and Carex sp. Total concentration of soluble phenolics will be determined from the plant samples. In addition, nitrogen, soluble carbohydrate, fiber fractions, some major macro minerals and trace elements will be determined. The digestibility of plants will be analysed in rumen fluid in vitro. The determinations will be conducted during the following years on samples collected during the early, mid and late growing seasons. Palatability studies will be conducted with captive reindeer via cafeteria feeding experiments. The results will be compared with the results of the summer pastures in the related RENMAN project and UV-exposures in the FUVIRC project. The results will provide information about the effects of ambient and enhanced UV radiation on summer pastures of reindeer and can be used to evaluate their consequences on reindeer management. Funding for the proposed research is applied both from national and international sources.
Key words: UV-radiation, reindeer, ecosystem, summer pastures, defence compounds, digestibility, palatability.
Abbreviations:
FUVIRC: Finnish Ultraviolet International Research Center (http://thule.oulu.fi/fuvirc/).
RENMAN: The Challenges of Modernity for Reindeer Management: Integration and Sustainable Development in Europe's Subarctic and Boreal Regions (http://www.urova.fi/home/renman/).
Morten Tryland*1,2, Øivind Ødegaard3, Terje D. Josefsen4, Karen Sørensen4, Torill Mørk4, Rolf Sarre5, Herdis Gaup Aamot6 & Kathrine Ryeng1
1Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Dept. of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, N-9292 Tromsø, * (morten.tryland@veths.no), 2University of Tromsø, Dept. of Microbiology and Virology, N-9037 Tromsø, 3National Veterinary Institute (VI) Oslo, POBox 8156 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, 4VI Tromsø, N-9292 Tromsø, Norwegian Animal Health Authority, 5N-9730 Karasjok and 6N-9502 Alta.
As a part of a research project, 48 reindeer carcasses were collected from four different herds in Finnmark. Necropsy showed that most animals (88%) died of emaciation. No indications of virus infections as the primary cause of death were found, although lesions in the oral and abomasal mucosa could be consistent with herpes or bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) infections. No indications of contagious ecthyma were found. Parapoxvirus: 279 tissue samples were analysed for the presence of parapoxvirus DNA by a PCR (B2L-gene, orf virus strain NZ-2)(Inoshima et al., 2000; Tryland et al., 2001). In samples from 6 individuals PCR products with size equal to parapoxvirus (574 base pairs) were detected, and DNA sequencing of a 354 base pairs showed 99% homology with orf virus from sheep. Parapoxvirus causes the disease contagious ecthyma which was diagnosed in reindeer in Troms and Nordland Counties in 1999 and 2000, respectively (Tryland et al., 2001). The outbreak in Nordland was severe and killed 7 reindeer and caused economical loss for the herder. These results show that parapoxvirus is present in reindeer herds in Finnmark without obvious clinical symptoms being reported. It is still unknown whether sheep and goats serve as the source of infection for reindeer (identical virus) or whether a specific reindeer parapoxvirus circulates. Contagious ecthyma was for the first time diagnosed in reindeer in Finland in 1992-93 (Oksanen et al., 1994), and has since caused annually outbreaks. Herpesvirus: Blood/tissue fluids were analysed by a virus neutralisation test (VN; Stuen et al., 1993). Antibodies against herpes virus (RanHV-1) were found in 4 of 41 animals (10%), all being newborn calves. These findings are consistent with previous investigations (Stuen et al., 1993). Herpes virus antibodies have previously been detected in reindeer in Sweden and Finland. Herpes infections are life-long and may be reactivated under certain circumstances such as restricted food availability and stress and may cause mucosal lesions and abortions. Bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV): Antibodies against the pestivirus BVDV (VN; Stuen et al., 1993) were detected in 14 of 39 individuals (36%), of which 3 were adults, 3 were 1 _ year old, 5 were yearlings and 3 were some days old. The prevalence corresponds with previous investigations (Stuen et al., 1993). It is still unknown whether this is identical with the bovine virus (BVDV). In cattle, most BVDV infections is subclinical. Calves may be borne weak with viremia. If reinfected, such calves may develop mucosal disease, which is characterised by acute illness, ulcerations in the intestinal mucosa, dehydration, and death. A high death rate of new born calves and mucosal lesions may be caused by these infections, but further investigations are needed on this issue. Since feeding of reindeer is increasing, which may cause stress and facilitate spread of infectious agents, contagious ecthyma, BVD, and herpes virus infections may have increased importance in the coming years.
These investigations were supported by the Reindeer Husbandry Development Fund (RUF).
References
Inoshima, Y., Morooka, A. & Sentsui, H. 2000. Detection and diagnosis of parapoxvirus by the polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Virological Methods 84: 201-208. Tryland, M., Josefsen, T. D., Oksanen, A., & Aschfalk, A. 2001. Contagious ecthyma in Norwegian semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). Veterinary Record 149:394-395. Oksanen, A. & Nordberg, H.S. 1994. Smittsom munnskurv. Reindriftsnytt 3/4, s. 13-17. Stuen, S., Krogsrud, J., Hyllseth B. & Tyler N. J. C. 1993. Serosurvey of three virus infections in reindeer in northern Norway and Svalbard. Rangifer 13: 215-219.
Christian Uhlig, Tore E. Sveistrup & Ivar Schjelderup
Holt Research Centre, The Norwegian Crop Research Institute, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway
(Christian.Uhlig@planteforsk.no).
Numerous investigations have documented changes in vegetation due to reindeer grazing in Finnmark County, Northern Norway, during the last 30 years. Soil properties are known to play an essential role for plant growth and thus ecosystem productivity. However, rather few investigations are done on the impact of reindeer grazing on soil properties. The aim of this investigation was to identify possible changes in physical and chemical soil properties due to reindeer grazing. At four different locations on Finnmarksvidda 3 sample sites were selected subjectively according to lichen and plant cover at each of the locations: A) good lichen and plant cover; B) reduced lichen cover, but moderate plant cover; C) lichen and plant cover almost absent. It was supposed that differences in lichen and plant cover were due to differences in grazing intensity. Vegetations types investigated were lichen rich mountain birch forest, and lichen heath. At each sample site one soil profile was excavated, thoroughly described and sampled for physical and chemical analysis from the different soil horizons. Physical parameters studied were soil density, soil porosity, water and air content at different suctions, plant available water and texture. Chemical parameters measured were pH, soil organic carbon (org-C), Kjeldahl-N, Cation Exchance Capacity (CEC), base saturation, and plant available P, Ca, Mg, K. The results showed that the mineral soil at all sites consisted of loamy sand/sandy loam with about 1-3% clay. On sample sites with good lichen and plant cover, the thickness of the organic layer did not exceed 6 cm. Plant roots were mainly found in or directly below the organic layer, but could also be numerous in mineral B-horizons until the depth of 20 cm. The thickness of the organic-O horizons decreased with decreasing lichen and plant cover, while soil pH of organic-O horizons and mineral A-horizons increased with decreasing soil organic matter. Rather little changes in the soil physical properties of the mineral soil were found. A strong correlation was found between soil org-C and CEC for all sites and horizons. Furthermore, organic-O horizons had generally the highest amounts of plant available P, Ca, Mg, K. Assuming that differences in lichen and plant cover are related to differences in grazing intensities, results indicate, that reindeer grazing can considerably reduce amounts of soil organic matter and thus also of potential plant nutrients. At the investigated sites on Finnmarksvidda, soil organic matter is regarded as one of the most essential key factors for soil fertility, and thus ecosystem sustainability and productivity.
Seija Vahtiala1*, Hannele Säkkinen2, Eija Eloranta3 & Erik Ropstad4
1Polar Breeding, Vainiotie 28, 91500 Muhos, Finland, 2Department of Biology, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 3000, 90014 Oulu, Finland, , 3Department of Physiology, University of Oulu, Kajaanintie 52 A, 90570 Oulu, Finland, 4Department of Reproduction and Forensic Medicine, Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 8146, Dep. N-0033, Oslo 1, Norway. * (seija.vahtiala@muhos.fi).
The pregnancy of 13 multiparous reindeer was followed by ultrasonography 1 Oct 1997-24 Feb 1998. Stag was introduced to the females 1 Oct 1997, and it was allowed to freely mate with them. The ultrasonography was performed once a week until 29 Oct 1997, after which it was done three times a week until 7 Jan 1998. After that the examinations continued once a week until 24 Feb 1998. The scanning was performed transrectally by using a 5 MHz linear tranducer, which was used until 31 Dec 1997. After that the uterus descended down to the abdominal cavity, and the fetus was difficult to locate for measurements by transrectal scanning. From 1 Jan 1998 onwards a 3 MHz sector transducer was used for scanning. The transducer was placed against the abdominal wall on the cranial side of the mammary glands. Each scanning was recorded with a VCR connected to the ultrasonography device. The fetal measurements were taken first from frozen images, and checked afterwards from the recordings.
The pregnancy diagnosis made by ultrasonography was afterwards compared to pregnancy diagnosis obtained from the analyses of serum PAG and P4. Following measurements were recorded during the scanning: 1) Uterine horn diameter, 2) Fetal membranes, 3) Crown-rump length, 4) Trunk width and depth, 5) The first observation of fetal heartbeat.
A positive pregnancy diagnosis was made when liquid, and possibly the fetus, was seen in the uterus. Pregnancy was diagnosed between weeks 3-6 of gestation, earliest on day 18. The accuracy of the diagnosis was 25 % at week 4 of gestation, 58 % at week 5 of the gestation and 100 % at week 6 of the gestation. PAG detected the pregnancy at an average (±SD) on day 25±3 of gestation (range between days 18 and 28 of gestation).
The uterine horn diameter was detectable from week 3 of gestation, right after fluid was observed in the uterus. Uterine horn diameter was measured until week 9 of gestation, after which folding of the uterine horn prevented it. The fetal heartbeat was first detected between days 25-42 of gestation. Fetal membranes could be measured from week 5 of gestation. The trunk diameter could be measured from week 4 of gestation and the trunk depth could be measured from week 5 of gestation. Both measures were detectable until the end of the study (between weeks 15-20 of gestation).
Crown-rump length could be measured from week 3 onwards when the fetuses became detectable on the screen. On week 5 of gestation the crown-rump length was an average 0.9 cm (±0.35) and the trunk diameter was 0.6 cm (±0.36). The crown-rump length was measured with the linear transducer until week 10-13 of gestation (5.9 ±1.83 - 9.6 ±2.35 cm), after which the fetuses were either too big for the screen or the uterus had descended to the abdominal cavity and the measurements were continued with the sector probe. Deviation of the fetal measurements was, however, much greater with the sector probe than with the linear probe because focusing of the sector probe was more difficult.
The results show that pregnancy diagnosis by ultrasonography is reliable for pregnancy diagnosis in early pregnancy.
Ingunn Vistnes1, Christian Nellemann1, 2, Per Jordhøy3 & Olav Strand3
1Department of Biology and Nature Conservation, Agricultural University of Norway, 1432 Ås, Norway.
2Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, 2624 Lillehammer, Norway.
3Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, 7005 Trondheim, Norway.
We studied lichen biomass on either side of infrastructure possibly perceived as barriers to wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in south central Norway as an indicator of use and grazing pressure. Only areas 2-5 km from infrastructure within comparable habitat were studied. Within two reindeer winter ranges, lichen biomass was 530% and 280% higher, respectively, in the regions cut off by two parallel power lines and an adjacent winter-closed road compared to biomass on the other side of the power lines. In a third region, lichen biomass did not vary significantly between areas 2-5 km north and south of a single winter-closed road without any adjacent power line. The data correlate with satellite imagery of lichen cover in the area. Our findings indicate that wild reindeer relatively freely crosses closed roads in winter, whereas two parallel power lines and a winter-closed road in combination are perceived as a barrier and lead to very different grazing pressures on either side of the barrier. In Snøhetta, hydropower development and the two parallel power lines have led to a near stop in migration between the eastern and western parts of the region, and the reindeer of the region are today managed as two separate herds. In Nord-Ottadalen, groups of reindeer have sporadically been observed underneath and crossing the power lines. These crossings have, however, been too infrequent and short-termed to be reflected in lichen biomass. Fragmentation of wild reindeer ranges in Norway has resulted in a substantial reduction in available ranges and traditional migration routes between important seasonal ranges, with an overall reduction in carrying capacity as the result. The current population of around 35 000 wild reindeer, half of the population 35 years ago, is now considered maximum with the limitations in available ranges due to industrial and recreational development.
Virve Väisänen1*, Jarno Mikkola1, Alfred Colpaert1, Jouko Kumpula2, Mauri Nieminen2 & Olavi Heikkinen1
1 University of Oulu, Department of Geography, P.O. Box 3000, FIN-90014 Oulun yliopisto, Finland.
2 Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute (RKTL), Reindeer Research Station, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland. * (virve.vaisanen@oulu.fi).
The questions concerning the use of natural resources have become more complex and extensive during last decades. The research of natural resources has often focused on certain and narrow themes but the sustainable use of resources insists on a holistic approach and attention to the interactions of the different forms of the resource use. The objective of this study is to research from the spatial and socioeconomic point of view the interactions and the dynamics between different forms of land use. The study focuses on the reindeer husbandry in Northern Finland, especially in four reindeer herding co-operatives. Progression of the interactions is studied from the 1950s up to the present. The aim of the research is to study questions like how the reindeer husbandry interacts with the other forms of land use, what kind of conflicts exist among the different land user groups, how the land use interactions and patterns have changed during the fifty-year period and what kind of land use planning is required to reach more sustainable use of natural resources. The study is a part of the LUIAS (Land Use Interaction Analysis System) –project. The project aims to analyse the interactions between reindeer husbandry and other use of natural resources and to adjust them together in a sustainable way.
Ragnhild Walde & Kari Anne Bråthen
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway (Kari.Anne.Brathen@ibg.uit.no).
In order to address the importance of weather for the productivity of the summer pastures of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), we have carried out biomass estimation over four years in grasslands in North-Norway. Plots were analysed in the beginning of August, which is assumed to be after peak season, in 1998 to 2001. Half of the plots analyzed in each of three locations, were protected from reindeer grazing by small exclosures. The total biomass data was analysed and related to precipitation and temperature data from the closest weather station. There was an increase in flowering biomass in 1999 in comparison to 1998, 2000 and 2001, while there was approximately 20% more biomass in the plots in 1998 than the following three years. This high in total biomass coincided with 1998 being the year with the highest mean July temperature. From 1999 to 2001, the mean July temperature decreased. During these years there was no significant change in total biomass. There was no effect of the exclosure treatment, indicating that plants in grasslands compensate for the grazing. Our results suggest that July temperatures have a major influence on the total biomass production in the present season, and on the total flowering in the following season in grasslands of northern boreal, coastal regions.
Johanna Wallsten, Birgitta Åhman & Öje Danell
Reindeer Husbandry Unit, Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, SLU, P.O. Box 7023, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
The organic matter digestibility (OMD) of two qualities of grass silage (silage I and II) and a sample of mixed lichens (Cladina spp.) was measured in vitro in rumen fluid from six reindeer. The reindeer had been fed three different diets (80% lichens and 20% silage or 20% lichens and 80% of either of the two silages) prior to rumen fluid collection. The three feed samples were digested 8, 24, 48 and 72 hours in each rumen fluid. The results were compared to in vivo apparent OMD of the three feeds, measured in ten live reindeer by comparing organic matter (OM) intake and OM excretion with faeces. The results on the amount of OM digested in vitro at different times were very similar in all rumen fluids. The results fitted well to a sigmoid response function. R2 was 0.993, 0.978 and 0.917 for silage I, silage II and lichens, respectively. Digestion of the two silages seemed to be completed after 72 hours, when 84-89% of the OM was digested. Lichens were digested to 71-80% after 72 hours and the curve indicated that lichens need more time for complete digestion. The results on in vivo digestibility for the two silages, 75,7±1.0% (least square means ± standard error) for silage I and 74.9±1.1% for silage II, were in good accordance with adjusted average in vitro OMD at 72 hours (using a formula calibrated for cattle), 76.9% for silage I and 76.2% for silage II. The in vivo digestibility for lichens, 73.9±1.0% was considerably higher than the corresponding adjusted in vitro OMD, 65.1%.
Robert B. Weladji1, Øystein Holand1 & Ansgar Kosmo2
1 Department of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Norway, P.O. Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway (robert.weladji@ihf.nlh.no).
2 Reindriftsforvaltningen i Nord-Trøndelag, N-7760 Snåsa, Norway.
We analysed variability of live weight and antler length in early summer among reindeer calves in relation to weather (winter, spring and early summer), sex and density. The data set included more than 5500 calves of both sexes for the period 1979 – 1986 in Østre Namdal, Norway. Body weight of males and females were positively correlated to antler length, suggesting that antler length could be a good measure of calf condition. Body weight and antler length varied significantly among cohorts and between sexes, with interaction between cohort and sex. Consistently, males were heavier (~ 2.5 kg ± SE 0.21) and had longer antler (~3.8 cm ± SE 0.23) than females. Body weight and antler length of male calves were, just as variable between cohorts as were those of female calves. The most parsimonious models, for antler length included density, winter snowfall, spring day degree, May-June precipitation and temperature; while all but May-June temperatures were included in the model for body weight. Unlike winter snowfall, May to June temperature and precipitation that negatively affected phenotypic traits, spring day-degrees were positively correlated with antler length and body weight. That snowfall the winter cohorts were in utero was kept in models for both body weight and antler length confirms a cohort effect mediated through the mother, most likely as a combined effect of increased energetic expenditure due to movement in deep snow and reduced food availability. Spring day-degree, May-June precipitation and temperature may influence forage availability and quality in the area while increased density may enhance intra-specific competition and limits food available at the individual level within cohorts.
Robert B. Weladji1, Øystein Holand1, Geir Steinheim1 & Helge Hansen2
1Department of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Norway, P.O. Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway (robert.weladji@ihf.nlh.no).
2Reindriftforvaltningen, Sør-Trøndelag/Hedmark, P.O.Box 121, N-7361 Røros, Norway.
In view of the socio-cultural and economical importance of reindeer herding, emphasis should be put on appropriate herd structure and selection strategies that maximize marketable products, such as meat (the primary marketable product nowadays). Empirical observations reveal that within a herd, some owners seems to have better productivity in term of calf body weight than others. We hypothesized that there may be an owner effect in reindeer herding, i.e. some owner may be applying particular selection strategies that might be beneficial. We investigated this in three reindeer grazing districts in South Norway, using mixed linear models. We found that autumn dresses weight of calves varied significantly with year and “owner” within herd in all three districts. Consistently some particular owners within a herd had significantly higher average autumn dressed weight of their calves than others. We attributed this difference to “individual selection strategies”, meaning that some owners may follow more accurately the calf and weight-based recommended strategy. In addition, they may make superior choices based on “Traditional Ecological Knowledge” when selecting animals to be kept in their stock.
Eva Wiklund1, Ingemar Hansson1 & Birgitta Åhman2
SLU; 1 Department of Food Science, Box 7051, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sverige (eva.wiklund@lmv.slu.se).
2 Reindeer Husbandry Unit, Box 7023, 750 07 Uppsala, Sverige.
An increasing number of reindeer calves are being slaughtered in Sweden (62.4% of the total reindeer slaughter 2000/2001 (National Board of Agriculture, 2001)). Therefore, it is important to investigate and compare their carcass quality with that of adult animals. Earlier studies within the project have demonstrated a clear seasonal variation in reindeer carcass quality (Wiklund et al., 2000) as well as describing the composition of light (< 20 kg) and heavy (> 20 kg) reindeer calf carcasses (Wiklund & Hansson, 2001).
A total of 44 reindeer (8 bulls, 7 cows, 15 female calves and 14 male calves) were included in the study to compare the sensory quality of meat from reindeer of various ages and sex. All reindeer were slaughtered at a commercial slaughter plant, Arctic Deli AB, Harads, Sweden. At slaughter the animals were stunned with a captive bolt. The carcasses were selected over the whole slaughter season i.e. from September to March to represent the normal time of slaughter for various animal categories and the seasonal variation in quality. At 2 days post mortem, M. longissimus from the left side were excised, vacuum packaged and frozen at –20 ºC. The samples were then transported frozen to the Department of Domestic Sciences, Uppsala University. The meat was prepared in a conventional oven at 150 °C to a core temperature of 68 °C. A descriptive test was carried out by a selected and trained sensory panel, all with previous experience in assessing meat (ISO 6564, 1985; ISO 8586-1, 1993). All assessments were done in a sensory laboratory with separate booths equipped with the PSA program (PSA System/3.2.07) and under normal white light (ISO 8589, 1988). The following attributes were selected and unanimously agreed upon during panel training; odour, fibre coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, reindeer flavour, liver flavour, fat flavour and bitter flavour.
The meat from reindeer bulls and cows had a more coarse fibre structure, more fat flavour and was less tender compared with meat from the calves. The bull meat had significantly higher values for liver flavour, reindeer flavour, fat flavour and a stronger odour compared with all other animal categories. When comparing the calves, there was a tendency for the females to produce meat with a less bitter flavour.
From this study it was concluded that there was a significant difference in the eating quality of reindeer meat from reindeer bulls, cows and calves. However, the slaughter strategy used today with an increasing number of slaughtered calves and in many reindeer herding districts also a decreasing number of slaughtered bulls, might therefore contribute to an overall improved reindeer meat quality. In the present study we also observed a variation in odour- and flavour attributes in meat from calves. It is of interest to further study the sensory properties in meat from reindeer calves.
References
ISO 6564. International Organisation for Standardization. (1985). Sensory analysis – Methodology – Paired comparison. ISO 6564: 1985 (E), Genève, Switzerland. ISO 8589. International Organisation for Standardization (1988). Sensory analysis – General guidance for the design of test rooms. ISO 8589:1988 (E), Genève, Switzerland. ISO 8586-1. International Organisation for Standardization. (1993). Sensory analysis – General guidance for the selection, training and monitoring of assessors – Part 1: Selected assessors. ISO 8586-1:1993 (E), Genève, Switzerland. National Board of Agriculture. (2001). Statistik over renslakt för slaktåret 2000/01 (in Swedish). Wiklund, E. & Hansson, I. (2001). Carcass composition of reindeer calves in various physical condition. Program and abstracts: 11th Nordic Conference on Reindeer Research, Kaamanen, Finland. – Rangifer report No. 5: 100. Wiklund, E., Hansson, I. & Malmfors, G. (2000). Composition and quality of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L) carcasses. Proceedings: 46th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Erik Wilhelmsson1, Miriam Nordh2 & Öje Danell3
1 Dept of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden (Erik.Wilhelmsson@resgeom.slu.se).
2 Holmen Skog AB, District Robertsfors, Box 66, SE-91521 Robertsfors, Sweden.
3 Dept of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7023, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
In the north of Sweden reindeer herding and forestry share the same land. This sometimes leads to a conflict of interests. Ground lichen is an essential source of reindeer forage during the winter. A lot of ground lichen is destroyed as a result of common forestry measure clear-cutting, both by machinery at the actual clear-cutting and later on by site preparation. The remaining lichen is partially covered by logging residue and therefore not accessible to reindeer. All this, in combination with the fact that open areas, more than forests, are exposed to severe snow conditions, makes clear-cut areas unsuitable as reindeer pastures for a number of years.
The effect of intensified reindeer grazing the years prior to clear-cutting is analysed in two steps. Firstly the effect was analysed without regard to the spatial dimension, and secondly with regard to the size and localisation of the forest treatment units.
The modelling period in the first analysis is eleven years. At the start, year one, all of the forest is 100 years of age. One tenth of the total area is clear-cut annually, during the years four to eight. In total half of the area is cut during the eleven-year period.
Under these conditions two strategies are studied: (1) The reindeer herders do not know about the forestry harvesting plans, thus the reindeer foraging will be evenly distributed all over the area.
(2) The reindeer herders know about the forestry harvesting plans and the reindeer are directed to areas going to be clear-cut within three years. The foraging pressure in areas soon to be harvested was thus assumed 67% higher during three years than it would have been in the same area using the strategy 1.
By increasing reindeer foraging by 67% for three years prior to clear-cutting, and consequently reducing reindeer foraging in other areas, the total lichen-stock will be 20% higher on the eleventh year and the accessible lichen-stock (the part not covered by logging residue) became almost 40% higher. The main reason for this is that by using more of the lichen-stock prior to clear-cutting less lichen is left to destruction by clear-cutting.
In this model the lichen-stock was 1000 kg/ha at year one. In the used lichen growth model (Moxnes et al., 1998), maximum growth of lichen occurred at a lichen-stock of approximately 2450 kg/ha. This suggests advantages of saving lichen at some locations: as the lichen-stock increases, so will lichen production.
A sensitivity analysis was done for lichen growth, minimum edible lichen-stock, coverage of lichen by logging residue, decomposition of logging residue, how much of the lichen - covered by logging residue - that dies after clear-cutting, and how much of the lichen that dies due to site preparation.
In a second step of this study the theoretically possible improvement in ground lichens for grazing will be analysed with spatial aspects concerning size and localisation of the treatment units considered. In reality ground lichen for grazing occurs in stands of varying size and mixed with land without any ground lichen or unsuitable for grazing depending on other land classes, younger stands, or recently thinned stands. Planned reindeer grazing can not be done in small and isolated stands.
Tomas Willebrand1, Öje Danell2 & Anders Esselin1
1Dept of Animal Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden.
2Dept of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
The Mountain-Mistra research programme assembles research on resource-based conflicts in the northern mountains and the nearby surroundings. The target area are the mountain municipalities in the north. They cover about 50% of Sweden north of lat. 60ºN. The aim is to create scientifically based strategies for sustainable multiple use of natural resources, and to develop methods and tools for their implementation, as well as actively participate in the solving of problems concerning conflicting resource use. The programme is highly interdisciplinary and includes research in both natural and social sciences. In total about 45 scientists are involved in the programme.
The first full scale phase of the programme during 2000 – 2002 includes research within seven programme fields, which interact with each other through bridging projects:
The main question within “Sustainable reindeer husbandry” is development of strategies and tools for adaptive management of reindeer grazing ranges within individual reindeer herding districts. Several individual projects are reported as separate contributions at the conference. One specific project concerns traditional knowledge about grazing and use of the landscape in reindeer husbandry. An important issue within the Mountain-Mistra context is productivity and psycho-social aspects of the co-existence of reindeer husbandry and large predators. One project is devoted to resource use and business economic optimizations of reindeer husbandry firms and reindeer herding districts in competition with other resource users.
The planned second phase of the programme will focus on syntheses, solution strategies and communications with user groups, management authorities, municipality bodies etc. within problem areas, where resource conflicts between users are pronounced.
Erik Ågren1, Birgitta Essén-Gustavsson2 & Kristina Karlström2
1Avdelningen för patologi, SVA, SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden (Erik.Agren@sva.se).
2Institutionen för kirurgi och medicin, stordjur, SLU, Box 7018, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
Six different species of Sarcocystis, two-host protozoan parasites, have previously been identified in striated muscle of the intermediate host reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.). When reindeer are heavily infested, the parasite may cause macroscopic changes in the muscle tissue, resulting in rejection of the slaughtered carcass. Multiple muscle tissue samples were collected in November during ordinary reindeer calf slaughter. The calves were all approximately six months old, were all from the same Sami village and had since birth been free-range grazing in the Vindelfjällen mountain area in Västerbotten county in Sweden. Transversal cross-section of a small muscle from the front leg, the muscle of Thiernesse (M. extensor indicis) was examined in light microscope. Sarcosporidial parasites were observed in 39% of the sampled animals (n=93). Preliminarily, at least three different Sarcocystis species, varying in size and wall thickness, were observed in the studied material. Previous reports based on meat inspection in Norway have shown a prevalence of 4%, with a higher occurrence in older adult animals. One Norwegian report shows prevalence in four herds varying between 10 and 40%, and a Russian study reports sarcocysts in 77% of examined reindeer from the Taimyr Peninsula. No studies have reported the prevalence in Sweden or in calves (animals up to one year of age). In the present study, further light microscopy and ultrastructural studies are needed to identify the different species correctly. Also, examination of known sarcocysts predilection sites (e.g. diaphragma, intercostal muscles, and esophagus) are needed, as the limited muscle area examined in this report probably does not reveal all infected animals. However, the already high prevalence of sarcocysts indicates that the grazing grounds are heavily infected with oocysts from droppings of fox or dogs, the definite hosts for some of the Sarcocystis species found in reindeer.
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