Oral presentations (in chronological order):
Pål Vegar Storeheier1, Svein D. Mathiesen2 & Monica A. Olsen1
1 Department of Arctic Biology and Institute of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway
2 Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway
The present study was initiated to estimate the food intake in free-ranging semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in late winter in Finnmark, northern Norway. Food intake was estimated indirectly using measurements of faecal production and estimates of forage digestibility. Three 10 months old reindeer calves were accustomed to wear faeces collecting bags under controlled conditions at the Department of Arctic Biology, University of Tromsø. The animals were given intraruminal chromic oxide (Cr2O3) controlled release capsules (Captec, Laverton, Australia) orally and subsequently released into a reindeer herd freely grazing on their winter pastures in Finnmark. During a period of six days in March 2000, the reindeer were fitted with faeces collecting bags that were emptied once a day. The chromic oxide content of this faeces is currently being analysed. When the animals were slaughtered at the end of the experimental period, woody plants (35%) and lichens (32%) dominated the botanical composition in their rumen, whereas only minor amounts of graminoids (13%) and mosses (6%) were present in the rumen fluid. The mean daily dry matter (DM) faecal output of the animals was 315.4 g DM or 8.6 g DM kg-1 body mass (BM). Assuming a mean digestibility of the forage plants eaten by reindeer in winter of 60% DM yields a mean daily food intake 788.6 g DM or 21.5 g DM kg-1 BM. These preliminary results suggest that the DM intake in our experimental free-ranging animals were equal to the DM intake in captive reindeer fed ad libitum amounts of a pelleted reindeer feed in winter.
Birgitta Åhman & Öje Danell
SLU, Reindeer Husbandry Unit, Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, P.O.Box 7023, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
Feeding of reindeer has been getting more common during recent years. Reindeer are fed for longer periods either to avoid excessive losses and preserve or improve the physical condition of the animals in the in the winter, or to achieve higher body weights before slaughter. In Sweden, 7000-8000 reindeer per year are also fed to reduce the levels of radioactive caesium in the body before slaughter. In the latter case the reindeer owners are compensated by the state for the cost of feeding. The costs are, otherwise, relatively high compared to the expected yield in terms of improved production, either as more reindeer surviving and producing calves or heavier reindeer producing more meat per animal.
We have calculated the costs and benefits of feeding reindeer in different situations, e.g. feeding of calves and yearlings before slaughter, feeding the whole winter herd during winter, and feeding breeding females in the spring. The expenses are mainly costs for feed, fences, travel and labour and are thus relatively easy to calculate. The yield, on the other hand, very much depends on the productivity that would be obtained if the reindeer were kept only on natural pastures and thus depends on a number of environmental conditions that are not assessed very easily. However, we conclude that feeding, as routine in reindeer management, is profitable only in special situations. Keeping the pastures in good condition by adapting stocking rate to the productivity of the ranges and optimising herd structure are economically a more effective ways to improve the productivity in the reindeer heard than long periods of compensatory feeding. The situation is different from economic point of view when the purpose is to save animals during occasional years with e.g. extreme snow conditions.
Veikko Maijala & Mauri Nieminen
Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, Fin-99910 Kaamanen, Finland (veikko.maijala@rktl.fi).
In Finland feeding of reindeer was started in the beginning of the 1970s. At first reindeer were fed only during poor winters. In Finland the winter supplementary feeding and fence feeding begins usually when the circumstances for digging are so poor that reindeer don’t get sufficiently forage from underneath the snow. There are some herding co-operatives in Finland where all reindeer are fed during winter. On the other hand, there are only few herding co-operatives, which don’t practice winter feeding at all. In the southern parts of the Finnish reindeer husbandry area reindeer are fed in the fences in wintertime, in the central parts both in fences and at terrain, and in the northern parts mostly at terrain. The most common forages in terrain feeding are dry hay, silage and commercial pellets. Reindeer herder must reserve forage enough for the feeding, because it is important that the forage doesn’t run out during the winter. The idea of terrain feeding is that the supplemental forage compensates insufficiently or inaccessibly available natural forage. In terrain feeding the reindeer get their daily foodstuff partly by given forage and partly from the natural pasture. In fence feeding the reindeer get their entire food by given forage. In Finland the fences have to be large enough that reindeer have a possibility to eat clean snow at anytime. Own fences are reserved for ill and weak reindeer. There are also own fences for reindeer, which are brought later in winter. Those reindeer, which are transported straight from the forest, are put in to their own fence where they get used to eat supplemental forage. Every time a reindeer is introduced with a new forage, feeding has to be started carefully allowing reindeer to adapt to the new diet. It takes at least 2-3 weeks to get used to new forage. During the fence feeding period health and behaviour of reindeer are observed daily. If the reindeer doesn’t come to eat at feeding times, reindeer herder must check why it doesn’t come. Is the reindeer sick or is it just satisfied and ruminates? To maintain weight balance during feeding reindeer are usually offered energy slightly in excess to their physiological needs This is one way to assure good condition in reindeer.
Results from the Experimental Field Station of the Reindeer Herders’ Association in Kaamanen
During winter 1999 we had four feeding groups: 1) norm feeding with commercial reindeer pellets (PH; PoronHerkku, Rehuraisio, Finland) in the fence (1,5 kg/reindeer/day, 2) feeding at terrain (0,9 kg PH/reindeer/day), 3) terrain without any supplemental food (natural grazing) and 4) PH ad lib. (year around feeding)(adults ate 2,9 kg and calves 2,7, kg/reindeer/day).
During feeding in the fence and feeding at terrain weight of calves remained quite stabile through experiment period (21.1-28.4.1999), 45 kg. Calves without any supplemental food at terrain lost weight from 45 to 36 kg. Calves fed commercial pellets ad lib. gained weight from 54 to 57 kg. Also weights of adult females remained stabile (79 kg) when fed in fence or terrain. During natural grazing without any supplemental food females lost weight from 79 to 70 kg. In ad lib. feeding they maintained weight between 86-89 kg. The condition of reindeer remained good throughout the experiment in all groups except in the group without any supplemental food. Highest birth weights of calves were obtained in the group with supplemental feeding at terrain (6,4 kg). The birth weights of calves in the groups of ad lib. feeding in fence, in terrain without any supplemental food and norm feeding in fence were 6,1 kg, 5,3 kg and 5,1 kg, respectively. When reindeer were offered ad lib. diets, they ate almost double amount compared to norm diets. There were also some problems in year around feeding groups after experiment period, e.g. cases of pneumonia.
Pekka Huhtanen
MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Animal Production Research, FIN-31600 Jokioinen, Finland.
Digestion and metabolism in ruminant are in many aspects different from simple-stomached animals. Carbohydrates are digested by microbes in the rumen and absorbed as volatile fatty acids (VFA). Carbohydrate fermentation provides energy for microbial protein synthesis in the rumen. Microbial protein synthesis is related to the amount of organic matter fermented in the rumen (25 - 30 g N/kg OM apparently fermented). VFA, which are also produced in the hind-gut, provides about 70% of digestible energy. Microbial protein provides about 70% of amino acids absorbed from the small intestine. Variable degradability of feed protein influence the contribution of microbial protein of total protein supply to the animal.
Ecological niche of ruminants in human food production is based on their ability to digest cell wall carbohydrates and synthesize high quality microbial protein from non-protein N. This does not take place without losses. In rumen fermentation a proportion of energy (15 - 20%) is lost as methane and fermentation energy. Utilisation of high quality protein is lower because of ammonia absorption and conversion of amino N to RNA and DNA N.
Ruminants can be divided into three main groups on the basis of their feeding strategy: grazers or roughage eaters (1), concentrate selectors (2) and intermediate feeders, which can change their strategy according to feed availability and season. Bovine is a typical grazer and moose a concentrate selector, whereas reindeer is an intermediate feeder. Grazers have a larger and more developed rumen, a longer small intestine and relatively smaller hind-gut than concentrate selectors. The latter have less developed and smaller rumen, but their salivary glands and rumen papillae are more developed than in grazers to maintain rumen pH. Concentrate selectors have also relatively larger hind-gut, which partially compensates for reduced cell wall digestion in the forestomachs.
Especially grazers are efficient in cell wall digestion and utilization. Long retention time of feed particles in the rumen (e.g. dairy cows about 40 h) facilitates high digestibility of potentially digestible cell walls. The efficiency of digestion is further improved by selective retention of feed particles in the rumen, i.e. the outflow of particles is not a random process. Probability of particles to escape from the rumen depends on their size and specific gravity. Particle size decreases in rumination, and particles > 2 mm seldom flow out from the rumen. Specific gravity of particles is even more important than size in determining the probability to flow out to the omasum and further to abomasum. In recently ingested particles active microbial fermentation produces small gas bubbles, which attach to particles thereby increasing their buoyancy. Later, when the particles contain less fermentable substrate, gas production decreases and specific gravity increases. Heavy particles sink down from the mass and are therefore more likely to escape from rumen fermentation. Mechanism of selective retention allows both efficient cell wall digestion and high intake, which are both necessary to maximise energy intake from forages.
The amount of glucose absorbed from the small intestine of ruminants is generally small, although large amounts are needed for milk production (co w 70 g/kg). Glucose is produced mainly in the liver with propionate and amino being the most important substrates. Reindeer calve in May, when the feed supply is limited. Under these circumstances a large proportion of nutrients are derived from body reserves. Body tissues provide well nutrients for milk fat, but are rather limited for lactose. In reindeer milk lactose content is low in relation to fat and protein. This allows a supply of energy and protein to the calf from body reserves during the first weeks to develop enough to use the good quality pastures in early summer.
Timo Soveri
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, POB 57, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
The purpose of fermentation in the forestomach of reindeer is, with the aid of microbial digestion, to make the structural carbohydrates of plants available for use as energy. At the same time it becomes possible to synthesize proteins of high quality from simple nitrogen compounds. The rumen is the largest and most important part of the forestomach. Bacteria, protozoa and fungi digest nutrients, that have been swallowed by the reindeer. The volatile fatty acids (VFAs) formed as the end product of microbial fermentation of carbohydrates constitute over 2/3 of the energy used by the reindeer. Most of the VFAs formed in the rumen are absorbed through the rumen wall into circulation. The mucosal membrane of rumen contains ruminal papillae that multiply the absorption surface area. The most important function of these papillae is to increase the efficiency of absorbtion of VFAs, which in turn are the most important growth factors for papillae. The more VFAs are formed, to a certain limit, the longer and thicker papillae grow. The forestomach of the newborn reindeer calf is very small and the ruminal mucosa is even. Small calves have a simple stomach. Milk sucked by them goes via the oesophageal groove to the abomasum, and there is no function in the forestomach. The calf begins to eat small amounts of solid feeds even during the first week after birth. In this way microbes enter the forestomach and the microbial flora begin to develop. At the same time small amounts of VFAs are formed and the papillae begin their rapid development. By the age of 3 weeks the papillae are fairly well developed and at the age of 2 months the calf is a real ruminant. The ruminal absorption surface area/cm2 ruminal wall of a calf aged 1-2 months corresponds to that of a 6-month-old calf. The papillae are shorter and thinner, but there are more of them. Papillae develop during the second summer to full size. During their first winter the calves have a ruminal absorption surface area that is half of that of the adult reindeer. The size of the papillae and ruminal microbes adapt within certain limits to foods consumed, and to their quality and quantity. If the diet consists of large amounts of easily digestible carbohydrates, a large amount of VFAs form in the rumen and the papillae grow. With a diet rich in cell wall carbohydrates (e.g. cellulose) the papillae get smaller. Feeding reindeer with feeds rich in cellulose can result in starvation, even if the amount of food is otherwise sufficient. Because the adaptation of both rumen microbial flora and papillae takes about the same time, approximately 2-3 weeks, changes in the diet should also take this amount of time and be made step by step. If a reindeer suddenly receives feed that is rich in easily digestible carbohydrates, large amounts of VFAs are formed quickly in the rumen. An acid rumen can develop, which can be fatal. The opposite situation occurs when a reindeer eats feed rich in proteins or urea, particularly if the feed is spoilt. An alkaline rumen develops, often followed by diarrhoea. Starvation has many effects on the rumen. Its contents become watery and pH increases. Muscles in the wall of rumen decrease, which weakens its movements. The number of species of microbes decreases, as do their total number and volume. This weakens the efficiency of microbial digestion. Papillae get smaller, which decreases the absorption capacity of VFAs. Food should be given to a starved reindeer carefully: small amounts often, and feeds which the reindeer is used to.
Antti Oksanen
The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, Tromsø, and
(from 1st August, 2001) Finnish National Veterinary and Food Research Institute, Regional Unit Oulu, PL 517, FIN-90101 Oulu, Finland.
Although some reindeer herders, for example Khanty people, feed their herds in order to tame the reindeer, the principal reason for winter feeding reindeer in the Nordic countries today is to sustain their health and productivity (Rehbinder & Nikander, 1999). Hinds in good body condition can give birth to healthy calves, and feed them. While the goal is mostly reached nowadays, it is unfortunately not seldom either that inappropriate feeding causes disease instead of promoting health.
One of the main problem causes is that easily digested fodder (e.g. grain, bread) too liberally administered very easily causes lactobacillar fermentation leading to ruminal acidosis and death very soon. This condition, although caused by overfeeding, very often comes as a total surprise to herders who perhaps recognise no change in feeding preceding the condition. This indicates that reindeer are very susceptible to ruminal acidosis.
When winter pastures are covered by ice, alarmed reindeer herders sometimes buy inferior surplus hay or ensilage from farmers. Even if the fodder would be appropriate to domestic ruminants, it is often too coarse and fibre rich for reindeer, being slowly digested, if at all. Coarse fodder can also cause damage to oral and other digestive tract mucosa. Moreover, fodder may even be spoiled by fungal and/or bacterial growth. Many of the different moulds produce various mycotoxins, which can cause different pathological changes and clinical symptoms, damaging e.g. mucosa, liver, kidneys, central nervous system or immune system. Some mycotoxins cause indigestion, others are carcinogenic, and some act as estrogen, causing persistent heat and abortions. It is not known how susceptible reindeer are to various mycotoxins, but it has been observed that reindeer attempt to avoid mouldy lichen pastures. Small concentrations of mycotoxins are perhaps ubiquitous and cannot be excluded totally, but any visible mould growth should cause the portion of fodder to be discarded.
Corral feeding almost inevitably leads to crowding, which makes contact between individual reindeer closer. Close contact between animals assists e.g. parapoxviruses to spread from the oral mucosa of one infected animal to another, either directly or via feeding trough (Tryland et al., 2001). Moraxella bacteria causing infectious keratoconjunctivitis spread when reindeer throng around the trough and eye contacts become very physical. Probably many other infectious agents spread similarly to these two mentioned.
Corral feeding domesticates, thus enabling micro- and macroparasites from domestic animals to infect reindeer. Increase in parasite transmission has been observed regarding the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, which uses most, if not all, warm-blooded animal species as intermediate hosts, but only cats as definitive hosts. In the feline intestine, environment resistant oocysts are produced. In herding districts where feeding was rare, toxoplasmosis as measured by the presence of specific antibodies in slaughter reindeer serum also was rare, but in districts with widespread corral feeding Toxoplasma prevalence was higher, approaching (but not reaching) the prevalence measured e.g. in sheep (Oksanen et al., 1997).
As winter feeding of reindeer increases in the Nordic countries, health aspects, including the negative health consequences, deserve increasing attention.
References
Oksanen, A., Åsbakk, K., Nieminen, M., Norberg, H. & Näreaho, A. 1997. Antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in Fennoscandian reindeer - association with the degree of domestication. Parasitology International 46: 255-261. Rehbinder, C, Nikander, S. 1999. Ren och rensjukdomar. Studentlitteratur, Lund. 247 pp. Tryland, M., Oksanen, A., Aschfalk, A., Josefsen, T. D. & Waaler, K. A. 2001. Smittsom munnskurv påvist hos tamrein i Norge. Norsk Veterinærtidsskrift 113: 9-13.
Morten Tryland1, Terje D. Josefsen2 & Antti Oksanen1
1 The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, N-9292 Tromsø
2 National Veterinary Institute Tromsø, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
In April 2000, the disease contagious ecthyma (Norwegian: smittsom munnskurv) caused by a parapoxvirus was diagnosed in a herd of semidomesticated reindeer in Nordland County, Norway (Tryland et al., 2001a and b). Approximately 150 animals had been coralled and fed since December. The first sign of the disease was the observation of an adult hind that gradually lost appetite, and had large chronic cauliflower-like papillomas on the lips and gums. The hind died and autopsy at the National Veterinary Institute Tromsø, revealed emaciation and acute fibrinous pleuropneumonia. The lips, rostral gums and the rostral part of the palate were covered with papillomas, and there were extensive necrosis of the tongue. Parapoxvirus papillomas and/or signs of secondary bacterial infections were observed in about 30 individuals (20% of the herd), some with only small and pink papular lesions, and some with chronic crust-covered papillomas. Animals with greenish mucopurulent saliva in the mouth caused by secondary bacterial infections were treated with antibiotics (Streptipenprocain® vet; 1.3 ml/10 kg). Altogether, 7 of the herd died (4.7 %) during the outbreak, and autopsies in the field revealed similar findings as described above. After treatment, the herd was let out of the fenced area to feed on mountain pasture.
Typical parapoxvirus particles were found in tissue samples from the papillomas by negative staining electron microscopy (2% phosphotungstic acid in dH2O, pH 7.0). From tissue samples, 25 mg were mechanically homogenised and DNA was extracted. PCR primers (PPP-1 and PPP-4) of the B2L gene of orf-virus strain NZ2 (Inoshima et al., 2000) produced amplicons of the expected size (594 bp), and identical with samples from a reindeer from Finland (1992) and from a goat from Troms County (1999), both with contagious ecthyma (positive controls).
The source of the infection was unclear. One possibility is transmission from sheep. Contagious ecthyma is enzootic in sheep and goats in Norway. Reindeer and sheep may graze on the same mountain pastures, and parapoxvirus may remain viable for a long period in dry scabs under field conditions. Another possible explanation of the outbreak is the existence of subclinical parapoxvirus infections in reindeer. Based on the experience from this outbreak as well as from annual outbreaks in Finland since the winter 1992-93 (Oksanen et al., 1994), it seems clear that contagious ecthyma in reindeer is related to feeding. Keeping and handling herds in a fenced area for extended periods, combined with bad nutritional status and malnutrition, may be stress factors that trigger a clinical outbreak, and feeding from trough and the use of salt licks appear to be efficient means of transmitting the virus within a herd.
Feeding of reindeer seems to become more and more common, and we may experience more outbreaks in the future. The virus reservoir and the transmission and distribution of virus within and between herds should be characterized. Further, the effect of vaccination of reindeer against contagious ecthyma should be evaluated.
References
Inoshima, Y., Morooka, A. & Sentsui, H. 2000. Detection and diagnosis of parapoxvirus by the polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Virological Methods 84, 201-208. Oksanen, A. & Norberg, H. S. 1994. Smittsom munnskurv. Reindriftsnytt 3-4, 13-17. Tryland, M., Josefsen, T. D., Oksanen, A. & Aschfalk, A. 2001a. Contagious ecthyma in Norwegian semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). Veterinary Record (under trykking). Tryland, M., Oksanen, A., Ascfalk, A., Josefsen, T. & Waaler, K. A. 2001b. Smittsom munnskurv påvist hos tamrein i Norge. Norsk Veterinærtidsskrift 113 (1): 17-21.
Mauri Nieminen & Veikko Maijala
Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.
In Finland slaughtering period is autumn and early winter, when the condition of reindeer is the best. Castrated males can produce 50-60 kg, females 35-40 kg and calves 20-25 kg meat. Those reindeer to be slaughtered are not usually fed prior to slaughter, but winter feeding, however, on is common almost in all of reindeer herding districts in Finland. Feeding in the corrals and also feeding all year round is increasing outside reindeer herding area. It is of increasing importance to study the effects of feeding.
During the season 1998-99, the number of slaughtered reindeer was 96 260 and meat production 2.2 million. kg. 71 % of all slaughtered reindeer were calves, 19 % females and 7 % castrates. The mean carcass weight in designated reindeer husbandry area was 21.9 kg and in other area 24.7 kg. The mean weight of carcass which were sold for bulk buyers was 22.7 kg, for direct sale 24.4 kg and for own use 25.1 kg. The meat production/living reindeer in whole reindeer herding area was 9.9 kg, in designated area 7.6 kg and in other area 14.1 kg.
In our earlier studies carcass weight/live weight was 46.2 %. Feeding with concentrates (crude protein content 20.7 %) increased live, carcass and internal organ weights and also meat production of calves. Protein content and amount of essential amino acids in reindeer meat is high, and protein level is 2-3 % higher in calf than in adult female meat. Feeding during summer, autumn and also all year round with concentrates increased protein content in reindeer meat. Fat content of reindeer meat was low, and highest fat contents were measured for castrates fed with concentrates during winter (5.4 %) and kept on natural pastures during autumn (12.2 %). Feeding with concentrates during summer and autumn increased slightly fat content in calf meat. In most of the fat storages in reindeer we can find oleic (18:1), stearic (18:0) and palmitic fatty acids (16:0). Oleic acid content in Cladonia-lichen is also high. During autumn on natural pastures contents of polyunsaturated fatty acids and also ratio of polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acids in reindeer meat is high. Feeding all year round with concentrates increased fat content and amount of saturated fatty acids in reindeer meat. Energy content of reindeer meat is high, and the mean energy content of reindeer fat is 34.5 MJ/kg. Fatty acid composition has many effects to the quality and taste of meat.
Reindeer meat contains many vitamins, most important of them belonging to group of vitamin-B. The highest vitamin contents were measured from calf meat. Vitamin-A, -C and -E contents were high in reindeer meat and liver. Mineral and trace element contents were high in reindeer meat and internal organs. All year round feeding with concentrates increased mineral and trace element contents in reindeer meat. Iron content was very high in reindeer meat and internal organs. Feeding with concentrates during summer and autumn increased slightly iron content in calf meat and internal organs. Selenium content was 5-10 times higher in reindeer than in cow meat. Very high selenium contents were measured in reindeer liver. Heavy metal (Cd, Pb) and Cs-137 –contents were very low in reindeer. Higher heavy metal contents were measured from reindeer liver and kidneys. Feeding all year round with concentrates decreased significantly low Cs-137 -content in reindeer meat.
Eva Wiklund
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Food Science, P.O. Box 7051, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden (eva.wiklund@lmv.slu.se).
Reindeer husbandry is generally based on the utilisation of native pastures and reindeer normally obtain all the nutrients they need from vegetation growing on these pastures. Nevertheless, reindeer are sometimes fed at times during the winter to prevent starvation or to improve body weight and condition. In some areas, feeding is used as a countermeasure to reduce radioactive caesium in the reindeer (Åhman, 1999). The animals are either fed in the field or brought into a corral and fed there for a period of up to 3 months. Commercial feed mixtures, specially prepared for reindeer, are commonly used in combination with hay, grass silage or lichens. Last slaughter season (1999/2000), 46 910 reindeer were slaughtered in Sweden (National Board of Agriculture, 2000). 18% of these (8347 animals) had been fed approximately 2 months prior to slaughter as a countermeasure to reduce radioactive caesium in the meat (Åhman, 2000).
The feeding of a commercial feed mixture (pellets) to reindeer for 2 months has been shown to improve the nutritional status, increase muscle glycogen stores and reduce the concentration of certain blood metabolites used as markers for protein catabolism or stress (Wiklund et al., 1996). In animals in good physical condition, the muscles contain enough glycogen to guarantee optimal ultimate pH values in the meat. Meat with high ultimate pH values (darkcutting or Dark, Firm, Dry) is a persistent quality defect that shortens shelf life, especially for vacuum-packed meat, and affects meat colour, texture and water-holding properties (Hood & Tarrant, 1981). Carcass characteristics of reindeer fed various diets were studied and it was concluded that animals fed pellets produced carcasses with higher dressing percentage and more trim fat compared with animals fed a mixed diet of lichens, bilberry brushwood and willow leaves (Wiklund et al., 2000). How the consumers appreciate different types of reindeer meat have also been studied, the results showed a broad variation in preference regardless if the consumer had earlier experience of reindeer meat or not (Wiklund & Malmfors, 2000). A pilot study have also demonstrated the effect of diet on fatty acid composition in reindeer meat (Wiklund et al., 2001).
References
Hood, D. E. & Tarrant, P. V. 1981. The problem of dark-cutting in beef. Martinus Nijhoff, Den Haag.
National Board of Agriculture. 2000. Statistik över renslakt för slaktåret 1999/00 (in Swedish). Wiklund, E., Andersson, A., Malmfors, G. & Lundström, K. 1996. Muscle glycogen levels and blood metabolites in reindeer (Rangifer Tarandus Tarandus L) after transport and lairage. Meat Sci. 2, 133-144. Wiklund, E. & Malmfors, G. 2000. Renar på naturbete: Viltsmakande kött med fleromättat fett. Fakta-Jordbruk , nr 8, SLU (in Swedish). Wiklund, E., Nilsson, A. & Åhman, B. 2000. Sensory meat quality, ultimate pH values, blood metabolites and carcass parameters in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L) fed various diets. Rangifer 20, 9-16. Wiklund, E., Pickova, J., Sampels, S., & Lundström, K. 2001. Fatty acid composition in M. longissimus lumborum, ultimate muscle pH values and carcass parameters in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L) grazed on natural pasture or fed a commercial feed mixture. Meat Sci. 58, 293-298. Åhman, B. 1999. Transfer of radiocaesium via reindeer meat to man – effects of countermeasures applied in Sweden following the Chernobyl accident. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 46, 113-120. Åhman, B. 2000. Radiocesium i ren slaktsäsongerna 1998/99 och 1999/2000. Rapport till Statens livsmedelsverk (SLV) och Jordbruksverket (SJV) (in Swedish).
Jan Åge Riseth
Narvik University College, P.O. Box 385, N-8505 Narvik, Norway, (jar@hin.no).
In 1967 an expert commission assessed West Finnmark reindeer pasture area to have excess winter pastures. However, from the middle 1970's to 1990 total herd size was doubled. From the 1970s to the late 1990s a considerable reduction of standing lichen pasture biomass is registered. Further, between 1990 and 1999 herd size is reduced by one third, and supplementary winter feeding increased in abundance. Herd size now probably is limited by winter pasture capacity.
How can this be explained? A comparative study with Trøndelag areas, which has maintained a stable and balanced pasture adaptation in the period, is conducted (Riseth, 2000). Two different adaptation strategies; herd expansion and productivity increase are registered as typical for Finnmark (denoted North) and Trøndelag (denoted South) respectively. As external influence (modernization, market linking, technical change, public policy) is much the same, we should look for differences between the areas. Factors of nature geography and society are examined. Pasture balance and landscape character are distinctly different in North and South. I North the combination of an open landscape, pasture balance and new technology, promoted an increasing degree of grazing on lichen pastures out of season. Societal factors also differed clearly. In South many herders found the times around 1970 as difficult and were on search for new ways of herd management. South also had a long tradition of organization work and government dialogue. Public policy of the 1980s clearly was better adapted to the South than the North situation.
Reference
Riseth, J. Å. 2000. Sámi Reindeer Management Under Technological Change 1960-1990: Implications For Common-Pool Resource Use Under Various Natural And Institutional Conditions - A Comparative Analysis of Regional Development Paths in West Finnmark, North Trøndelag,and South Trøndelag/Hedmark, Norway.
Dr. Scient. Theses 2000:1. Department of Economics and Social Sciences. Agricultural University of Norway. ISSN 0802-3222. ISBN 82-575-0411-4. Ås, Norway.
Peter Waller1, Antti Oksanen2, Mauri Nieminen3 & Odd Halvorsen4
1SWEPAR, National Veterinary Institute, Uppsala, Sweden.
2The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Tromsø, Norway.
3Finnish Game and Research Institute, Kaamanen, Finland.
4Zoological Museum of Oslo, Norway.
It is widely recognised amongst those who are knowledgeable about the reindeer husbandry of Fennoscandia, that both internal parasites (gastro intestinal and pulmonary nematodes) and external parasites (larval stages of oestrid flies) are of major importance. However, it is also well known amongst these experts that detailed quantitative, epidemiological knowledge and economic significance of these parasites is seriously lacking. Most of the parasitological studies on reindeer have been restricted to the wild populations, which differ considerably from the management and environment under which the semi-domesticated reindeer of Fennoscandia are raised.
Recognition of the importance of parasites is illustrated by the fact that more than 80% of the semi-domesticated reindeer of Finland are treated every year with antiparasiticides. Similar statistics are likely to be the case for Norwegian and Swedish reindeer populations. Overwhelmingly the drug of choice is the macrocyclic lactone antparasitic, ivermectin. Efficacy studies indicate that this drug is highly effective against internal and external parasites of reindeer. However, there is concern about the impact that excreted drug has on the fragile northern environment This is because ivermectin residues excreted in the dung of treated animals has been shown to be toxic to a range of arthropods in the external environment. Some studies indicate that at the time that ivermectin is generally used in reindeer (early – mid winter), coprophagous insects are not active and thus not affected. However, dung breakdown and nutrient re-cycling is critical for dung deposited at any time of the year. For this to occur, beneficial, saprophytic soil nematodes are key organisms. No research has been conducted on the impact of ivermectin residues on nematode, or microbial, activity responsible for the breakdown of reindeer dung.
In the move towards achieving sustainability of semi-domesticated reindeer industry of Fennoscandia, the importance of parasites to their production and also the impact on the environment of chemical control methods, need to be comprehensively investigated. Towards this objective a research consortium has been developed between researchers in Finland, Norway and Sweden. This collaborative project has received funding and is scheduled to commence in 2001.
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