Abstracts of posters presented at the 11th Nordic Conference on Reindeer Research, Kaamanen, Finland, 18-20 June 2001. (Published in Rangifer Report No. 5, 2001).

Poster presentations:

Seroprevalence to Salmonella spp in semi-domesticated rein-deer in Finland and Norway

Ansgar Aschfalk¹ & Nicolai Denzin^2
1Norges veterinærhøgskole, Institutt for arktisk veterinærmedisin, Tromsø.
²Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin, Berlin.

Aim of this project is to evaluate the importance of salmonellosis in semi-domesticated reindeer in Finland and Norway. A total of 3032 serum samples from reindeer were examined on the presence of antibodies for Salmonella spp in an indirect LPS-mix-ELISA. The Norwegian samples (n=2000) and most of the Finnish reindeer samples (n=802) were obtained from clinically healthy slaughter animals, the remaining Finnish samples (n=230) from a permanently corralled herd, where cases of diarrhoea were reported. Twenty-nine serum samples from Finland and 12 from Norway had a higher optical density value for Salmonella spp than the determined Cut-off. The overall prevalence in reindeer in Finland was 2.8% and in Norway 0.6%. The determined seroprevalence of the clinically healthy slaughter animals in Finland was 0.9%, the one found in reindeer from the permanently corralled herd varied between 4.3% and 12.9% (determined in 3 consecutive years). The rather low seroprevalence for Salmonella spp found in Norway is similar to the one found in clinically healthy slaughter animals in Finland. Corralling may eventually increase infections among reindeer.

Occurrence of Campylobacter spp, Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella spp, Yersinia spp and shigatoxin-1,2-producing bacteria in semi-domesticated reindeer cadavers in Northern Norway

Ansgar Aschfalk¹, Kathrine A. Ryeng¹ & Christiane Höller^2
1Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Tromsø, Norway.
²Institute of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany.

There is little information on bacteria that have the potential to cause diseases and mortality in free-ranging, semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). Bacteria, such as Campylobacter spp, Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella spp, and Yersinia spp are among the most important agents in causing enteric diseases, as known from domestic ruminants, and thus, a certain importance of these bacteria in reindeer husbandry in Norway may not be excluded, as well, even though C. perfringens obviously was the only one of these bacteria reported to cause mortality in reindeer in Norway, so far. In addition, enteric pathogens with a major interest on human health, such as shigatoxin-1,2-producing bacteria (e.g. EHEC), may also occur in reindeer. In this project, faeces samples from 35 reindeer, adults and calves, that died in winter 2000 in Finnmark county, were examined for the occurrence of Campylobacter spp, C. perfringens, Salmonella spp, and Yersinia spp. In addition, 31 of these samples were examined for the occurrence of shigatoxin-1,2-producing bacteria, as reindeer may be a potential reservoir of these pathogens. C. perfringens was isolated in 20 (57.1%) of the faeces samples and the gene encoding for shigatoxin-1 was detected in one of the samples (3.2%). Campylobacter spp, Salmonella spp, Yersinia spp and shigatoxin-2-producing bacteria were not found.
Shigatoxin-1-producing bacteria were isolated for the first time from reindeer. Even though there are few reports on diseases caused by shigatoxin-producing bacteria in ruminants, they are of extreme importance in causing severe diseases in humans. C. perfringens was isolated from reindeer before and is known to have the potential to cause mortality in reindeer, but only, if other factors coincide. In this study, an evidence on the association of the occurrence of C. perfringens and shigatoxin-1-producing bacteria and the mortality in reindeer, however, could not be provided. This examination was performed as part of the preliminary project “Loss and Mortality of Reindeer in Finnmark County”, financed by the Reindeer Husbandry Research Fund.

Resource and Business Economic Analysis of Reindeer Husbandry Firms

Lennart Bergkvist
SLU, Department of Economics, Box 7013, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.

The aim of this project is to develop planning tools for reindeer husbandry firms and to use these instruments for analyses of reindeer husbandry firms and herding communities. The project is based on interviews, inquiries and current data from the reindeer industry. There are important differences between other kinds of firms and reindeer husbandry firms. These differences are based on the close connection to Sami culture and the fact that the manager does not own the land that is used for reindeer herding. For the efficient use of economic planning tools, a model needs to be developed where these aspects are recognized. The reindeer husbandry firm does not only produce reindeer meat but is also the primary carrier of Sami culture. Today the most important source of information when decisions are made, comes from older relatives or colleagues. The implication of this is that there is a gap between available and wanted information in current reindeer husbandry firms when decisions are made. A necessary change towards an increased profitability does most probably mean more investments on supplementary enterprises. Considering the above, it is essential to broaden the supply of suitable supplementary enterprises and to present the added value of those supplementary enterprises to the reindeer husbandry firms. It is not good to work under the pressure that most reindeer husbandry managers feel today, if you at the same time want to develop your firm. When knowledge about reindeer husbandry firms increases, possible conflicts between different land-users and other stake-holders decreases. This project have so far generated the following results, which also will be presented in a poster:

• Enterprise budgets (operative economic planning tools)
• A model for how strategic planning could be conducted in reindeer husbandry firms
• Examples of suitable supplementary enterprises for reindeer husbandry firms.

Effect of global climate on autumn calf weight in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)

H. Breie, Ø. Holand & R. B. Weladji
Department of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Norway, P.O.Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway.

It has recently been shown that global climatic regime has the potential to influence several aspects of life history and ecology of terrestrial large mammalian herbivores. Using the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index during winter, we estimate the effect of global climatic variability on carcass weights of reindeer calves in three mid-Norwegian populations from 1992 to 2000. In all three populations, autumn body weight varied significantly with both year and sex. Furthermore, the NAO index had a significant positive effect on autumn body weight, but the effect varied between populations. The model explained about 30% of the inter-annual variation in autumn body weight. Our results suggest that a high NAO index indicates favourable winter conditions for reindeer in Mid-Norway. This study supports the hypothesis that global climatic variability may affect large herbivores’ population dynamics.

The milk let down mechanism in reindeer

Gjøstein, H., Holand, Ø., Hove, K. & Bolstad, T.
Agricultural University of Norway, Department of animal science, Ås, Norway.

In a commercial reindeer dairy farming the milk let down mechanism and hence yield is essential. We tested the effect of two different treatments where calf was applied to stimulate the milk let down of the doe. In experiment 1 the doe had olfactory,- audio- and visual contact with the calf during milking and experiment 2 the calf was allowed suckle the doe for 2 seconds followed by machine milking. In both experiments the udder was massaged with a warm cloth and the nipples was handmilked for a short time before machine milking.
A general linear model (GLM), taking into account individual variation and sampling period was established, in order to test the effect of olfactory,- audio- and visual contact during milking session on let down i.e. on average milk yield. The model was highly significant (r²=0.93, F₁₅=9.4, P<0.005). however, only individual animal variation contributed significantly to the model (F₇= 11.8, P<0.005). A general linear model, taking into account individual variation and sampling period, was also established in order to test the effect of short suckling on the proportion of residual milk in relation to total yield. The model was significant (r²=0.99, F₇=9.4, P<0.05). Suckling was the major contributor to this model (F₁=293.8, P<0.005).
We conclude that olfactory -, audio - and visual contact with the calf during the milking session did not affect the let down mechanism. Short suckling by calf induced the let down and enabled a complete emptying of the udder by machine milking.

Wilted and unwilted grass silage in reindeer winter feeding

Ulla Heiskari1, Mauri Nieminen¹ & Liisa Syrjälä-Qvist^2
1 Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.
² Department of Animal Science, Animal Nutrition, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 28, FIN-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland.

Grass silage is commonly used in winter feeding of reindeer, especially in the southern parts of reindeer herding area in Finland. In recent years the round baled grass silage has become more common also in the northern reindeer herding districts. Silage is usually given in addition to other feeds, for instance hay, cereals or concentrates. The high water content of grass silage (75-80%) causes problems of freezing during cold winter. The water content of silage can be decreased with wilting of the grass before ensiling. Silage has not been recommended as a sole feed to reindeer in long-time feeding, while the use of silage in shorter feeding periods has been successful. Wilted and unwilted grass silage as a sole feed or with added concentrate feed was studied in long-term winter feeding trials in two-year experiment with adult female reindeer.
Two groups of adult female reindeer (n=8) were in ad libitum feeding from January until the beginning of April during two winters. One group in each year was fed with precision-chopped, wilted grass silage and the other with unwilted, flail-harvested grass silage. All silage was early harvested from mixed grasses (timothy, meadow-grass, Poa spp.), preservative (mainly formic acid) was added at the chopping stage and silage was preserved in bunker silos. The quality of all silage was good, no fermentation differences were observed between different silage types. The dry matter content varied from 19% (unwilted, second winter) to 41% (wilted, first winter) in different silage types. During the second year the reindeer were fed with the concentrate feed in addition to silage (875 g/animal/day). The control groups grazed on winter pastures. Daily feed intake as mean of eight reindeer and weekly body weights (the control groups monthly) were recorded and the chemical composition of blood serum was determined once a month.
The daily dry matter intake varied between 0.5-2.0 kg/reindeer, which is about 10-21.5 g DM/kg live weight and the intake of wilted silage was slightly higher than the intake of unwilted silage in the beginning of the experiment during the first winter. The addition of concentrates decreased the dry matter intake of silage on average by 5%. There were no significant differences in the total dry matter intake of any experimental group. No digestive problems were determined and the animal health was stable during the experiments. The feeding groups increased their body weights and the control animals lost slightly body weight during the experiments. There were no significant differences neither in the body weights, nor in the blood serum values of the experimental groups.
Both wilted and unwilted grass silage was found to be palatable feed for adult reindeer. The dry matter intake of silage determined in this study was at the same level or slightly higher than in previous experiments. The added high quality concentrate feed decreased the intake of silage. The results indicate that wilted and unwilted grass silage can be solely fed to adult reindeer during winter in ad libitum basis and with special care of silage quality. Because of the high percentage of silage residues in ad libitum feeding, silage is recommended as main part of diet with added concentrates etc. or as a supplement to winter pasture in the practical winter feeding of reindeer.

Production and harvesting in the reindeer husbandry industry

Cathrine Henaug, T. Tveraa, P. Fauchald & N. G. Yoccoz.
Norsk Institutt for Naturforskning, Polarmiljøsenteret, N-9296 Tromsø, Norge.

The reindeer husbandry industry in Finnmark County, Norway, has in the last decade struggled with low production. In particular, the losses right after the calving period has been high. It has been argued that this development is due to factors like increased predator populations, unfavourable environmental conditions and high numbers of animals. This study was designed to gather estimates of the extent of calves killed by predators, which predator causes the losses, and how the losses are related to the body weight of the females. All females in this study were kept in a calving fence and fed throughout the parturition period. The calves were marked with mortality collars and daily search for dead calves was carried out for one month after they were let out of the fence.
The results show a close relationship between female body weight and their ability to produce live offspring. The females separated mainly in three different weight groups. Females with the lowest weight experienced miscarriage, while the group of “heavier” females lost their calves few hours after birth and the heaviest group left the fence with their offspring. The latter group tended to have heavier calves. The first month after the females and their calves were let out of the fence, about 22% of the calves were lost to legally protected predators. This group of females was however the females with the lowest weight compared to those females which still had their calves at foot by the end of the study period.

Modern reindeer dairy farming – the influence of machine milking on udder health, milk yield and composition

Øystein Holand¹, Pilvi Aikio², Hallvard Gjøstein¹, Mauri Nieminen², Knut Hove¹ & Robert G. White^3
1Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Animal Science, Ås, Norway.
² Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Inst., Reindeer Research Station, Kaamanen, Finland.
³ University of Alaska Fairbanks, Inst. of Arctic Biology, Alaska, USA.

Our main objectives were: 1) to test if the reindeer mammary gland (udder) could tolerate regular long-term machine milking, 2) to record milk yield of reindeer exposed to regular long-term machine milking and 3) to document changes in milk composition through a 3 month experimental period (July, August and September 1999). Adult female reindeer were allotted to four groups of four. Treatments were: Group 1, weekly milking with calves at foot (control); Group 2, 2 milkings/d, no calves at foot; Group 3, as for group2 with a pre-milking oxytocin injection (i.m. 10 IE); Group 4, as for Group 1 with 6 h separation of calf and cow before milking. Vacuum pressure was set to 25 kPa, pulse rate to 100 pulses/min with a suckling: massage ratio of 60:40. Somatic Cell Count, a measure of udder health, stabilized below 150.000 per ml in all groups and no morphological changes in teat characteristics were observed, indicating that udder health was not affected by long-term regular machine milking. Average milk yield for Group 1 was 50 g, whereas a yield of 380 g/d was achieved for Group 3 (no nursing and injected with oxytocin). Milk yield of Group 3 was 4 fold higher than Group 2 (90 g/d), which was milked twice daily but had no nursing and no injections of oxytocin. Separation of calves for 6h before daily milking (Group 4) yielded 35g/d. Based on the effectiveness of oxytocin, we conclude that milk letdown mechanisms are critical for effective emptying of the udder. A treatment reversal trial was conducted for a week late in the experimental period: For Group 3 mean daily milk yield when injected with saline although lower than the yield with oxytocin was greater than Group 2 which showed a 10-20% increase due to oxytocin; the 6h mean milk yield of Group 4 when injected with oxytocin, was 6 fold higher (215 v 35 g). We conclude that; a) oxytocin is effective in all treatments, b) oxytocin condition the mammary gland to maintain secretion, c) that nursing by calves at foot contributes to maintenance of milk production, and d) that in absent of suckling or oxytocin milking twice daily with 6 and 18h intervals is inadequate and may induce a forced involution of the mammary glands. Milk dry matter content averaged slightly above 25% and increased slightly with stage of lactation. Dry matter consisted of about 12% fat, 9% protein and 3% lactose and the slight increase with stage of lactation was the result of increased fat and protein content of the milk.

Lungworm infection in reindeer

Terje D. Josefsen¹, Torill Mørk¹, Karen K. Sørensen1 & Kathrine Ryeng^2
1National Veterinary Institute Tromsø, Stakkevollvn. 23b, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
²The Norwegian School of Veterinary Sciences, Stakkevollvn. 23b, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.

Materials and methods
The project “Loss and mortality in reindeer in Finnmark” (see separate poster) received 32 frozen reindeer carcasses from herds A (n=18), B (n=9) and C (n=5). The dead animals were succumbed (n=30) or euthanised (n=2) in the period from the 3rd of March to the 24th of May. The causes of death were starvation (n=28) or predators/trauma (n=4). Age distribution was: Calves (9-12 mo): n=19. Yearlings (21-24 mo): n=4. Adults (>2 years): n=9. There were 12 male and 7 female calves. All yearlings and adults were females.
The carcasses were examined for the presence of lungworms by three methods:

1. Macroscopic examination: Trachea and the main bronchia were opened.
2. Faecal egg count: A modified McMaster technique was used (suspending faeces in water, centrifuging the suspension, suspending the sediment in a saturated salt solution, counting eggs and larvae in a McMaster counting chamber). Detection limit: 20 epg/lpg (egg/larvae per gram faeces).
3. Histological examination: Pieces of lung tissue from the cranial and caudal lobes were fixed in formalin, and paraffin embedded HE-stained histological sections were prepared. The sections were examined by light microscopy.

Results
Macroscopic examination (n=32): Two or three lungworms were found in the main bronchia in to animals (6%) that were found dead on the 2nd and 10th of May respectively.
Faecal egg count (n=31): Embryonated eggs or free larvae in the faeces, consistent with lungworm eggs/larvae, were found in 5 animals (16%). Average number: 44 epg/lpg, variation from 20 to 100 epg/lpg.
Histological examination (n=31): Different developmental stages of lungworms, from eggs to larvae, were demonstrated in 13 animals (42%). In 6 of these 13 animals there were severe inflammatory changes in the lungs, taking the form of a diffuse granulomatous pneumonia.
Based on the histological examination the prevalence in herds A, B and C was 39%, 22% and 80% respectively. The prevalence of lungworm infection in calves, yearlings and adults was 26%, 50% and 67% respectively.
The majority of the calves were treated with ivermectin mixture once during the winter, but the time of treatment varied between the herds from November to February. Lungworm infection was demonstrated in both treated and untreated calves.

Conclusions

• In winter carcasses histological examination of lung tissue gave a more reliable estimate of lungworm infection than did macroscopic examination or faecal egg count.
• Lungworm infection seem to be widely distributed in the reindeer herds, but the prevalence appearing in the present study must be interpreted cautiously, as most of the present material is taken from animals that have starved to death during the winter.
• In some animals the lungworm infection caused severe inflammatory changes in the lungs. It is reason to believe that such inflammatory changes may influence winter survival.
• The prevalence of infection seemed to increase with age.
• Treatment with ivermectin during winter did not seem to influence lungworm infection.

Acknowledgements to the Norwegian Reindeer Husbandry Research Council for financial support.

Starvation death despite feeding – a recurring problem in reindeer husbandry

Terje D. Josefsen¹, Karen K. Sørensen¹, Torill Mørk1, Svein D. Mathiesen² & Kathrine A. Ryeng^2
1National Veterinary Institute Tromsø, Stakkevollvn. 23b, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
²The Norwegian School of Veterinary Sciences, Stakkevollvn. 23b, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.

Materiales and methods
The project ”Loss and mortality in reindeer in Finnmark” (see separate poster) received 29 frozen reindeer carcasses, which at necropsy was given the diagnosis ”extreme emaciation” (cachexia; see separate poster). Starvation was regarded as the direct cause of death in 28 carcasses, while the 29^th carcase, though also cachectic, had acute and probably lethal lesions caused by eagle. The animals came from 3 different herds, and had died in the period from the 8^th of March to the 24^th of May. Most of the animals had been offered feed, either baled silage as supplemental feed on the mountain pastures, or different feeds in a fenced area near the home places.
During necropsy the carcase weight and the weight of ruminoreticulum with content were registered. Samples of rumen content from 26 carcasses were sent to the Foundation of Nature Research (NINA), Trondheim, for analysis of botanical composition (wooden material, grass material, lichens, mosses, litter and “other”). Samples of rumen content from 20 carcasses were sent to Planteforsk Holt, Tromsø, for analysis of chemical composition (dry matter, ash, protein, hemi-cellulose, cellulose and lignin).

Results
Herd A was given baled silage as supplemental feed on the pastures. Botanical analysis of rumen content from 16 carcasses showed that the amount of lichens in rumen was small in all carcasses (mean 3.5%). There was large variation in the amount of grass material in rumen: 7 animals had less than 10% grass material in rumen, while 7 animals had from 47 to 76% grass material in rumen. This probably expresses variation in intake of the offered silage. In animals where grass material constituted less than 10% of rumen content, the grass material consisted of 58% leaves and 42% stems (mean values), while in the other animals the grass material in rumen contained a mean of 17% leaves and 83% stems. From herd B was received 8 cachectic carcasses, of which 6 had been given baled oat silage for the last 2-4 weeks. Botanical analysis of rumen content showed that these 6 animals had a mean of 90% grass material in rumen, consisting of 12% leaves and 88% stems. From herd C was received 3 carcasses of cachectic calves, which all had been fed silage, lichens and pellets. Botanical analysis of rumen content showed 5-11% lichens and 15-66% grass material, consisting of 79% leaves and 21% stems (mean values). A severe diffuse granulomatous pneumonia, caused by lungworms, was diagnosed in these three calves.
All herds: In general, the chemical composition of rumen contents showed low content of crude protein and high content of cellulose and lignin, compared to previously reported values. The wet weight of ruminoreticulum (content included) showed large variation, and no strong associations were discovered between botanical or chemical parameters and wet weight of ruminoreticulum.

Conclusions
The results indicate three possible factors that may contribute to the explanation of starvation death despite feeding:

• Animals that do not eat from the offered feed (herd A).
• The use of roughage feed that is not suitable for reindeer, and results in accumulation of stems in rumen (herd A and B).
• Heavy parasite burden or parasitic disease that contributes significantly to emaciation and death (herd C).

Decision making in reindeer herding

Ann-Marie Karlsson
Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet, Institutionen för ekonomi, S- 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.

The aim of my research project is to study how decisions concerning long time use of pasture are made in reindeer herding.
Since several reindeer herders use an area of pasture the theories in the field of property rights and common property regimes are interesting. Ostrom, 1993 summarizes for example conditions in decision making that will lead to a long term successful use of a commonly owned resource, some of them are that the participants is a homogenous group when it comes to preferences, and that they have the same values about what the problems are and how to solve them. In decision theory a decision can be seen as process including several events. To summaries a problem in relation to goals and values has to be identified, alternative solutions have to be recognized and a choice based on the facts about the different solutions should be made.
I have chosen two types of approaches a qualitative approach by interviews and open questions in a questionnaire and a quantitative approach where I test hypothesis by a questions in questionnaire sent to a sample of reindeer herders.
The preliminary results show that the reindeer herders have the same long term non economical goals. They choose to be reindeer herders because they saw it as a natural step to continue there parents way of life and because they saw reindeer herding as an interest. It is also important for most reindeer herders that there children will continue there business. In the short run the economical goals are more important for reindeer herders who work full time in reindeer herding and have more reindeers than the average than it is for reindeerherders with a small number of reindeers. The reindeer herders experience that the largest problems concerns forestry and predators.

I plan to have a report finished in the end of 2001.

Volatile fatty acid transport across cell membranes

Ninna Koho¹, Veikko Maijala², Mauri Nieminen² & Reeta Pösö^1
1 Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland. ² Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research, 99910 Kaamanen, Finland.

The main energy source for reindeer is carbohydrate that is digested by ruminal fermentation to volatile fatty acids (VFA). It has been estimated that in reindeer 70-80% of the energy is derived from VFA. Minor quantities volatile fatty acids are produced also in cecum and colon. VFAs with even number of carbon atoms (mainly acetate and butyrate) are used for energy production in peripheral tissues. Propionate is used mainly for glucose production in the liver.
VFA are absorbed into circulation mainly from rumen and partly also from small intestine. The acid form of VFA may diffuse through cell membranes, but the dissociated form needs a transport protein. Monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) is a transmembrane protein, which transports volatile fatty acids, ketone bodies and lactate across the cell membranes. Several isoforms of mono-carboxylate transporter have been found; the most extensively studied are isoforms MCT1, MCT2 and MCT4. In digestive tract MCT1 has been found in the human and pig colon and in the small intestine of rat. In ruminants monocarboxylate transporters have not been studied previously.
In this experiment the expression of MCT1, MCT2 and MCT4 in the epithelium of rumen and small intestine as well as in liver tissue was studied. Samples were collected from slaughtered adult reindeer in Reindeer Research Station at Kaamanen. Half of the reindeer (n=8) were fed a commercial feed and another half (n=8) had been grazing in the summer and was given additional feed in the winter (control group).
Monocarboxylate transporters were determined from separated cell membranes by western blotting. The results show that the main monocarboxylate transporter in rumen was MCT1. MCT4 was also present, but MCT2 was not detected. In small intestine all the transporters were detected but MCT1 and MCT4 gave the strongest signal. Individual differences were very large in the small intestine. MCT1 was the main transporter also in the liver and MCT4 and MCT2 were almost undetectable. Statistical differences were not found between the reindeer groups. The higher amount of MCT1 in the rumen than in the small intestine is in accordance with the absorption rate of VFA. These results indicate that monocarboxylate transporters have a role in VFA transport in the digestive system of reindeer.

This study was supported by a grant from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Finland.

Natural pastures and mobile animal husbandry management: a case study on the Tibetan plateau

Timo Kumpula, Angela Manderscheid & Alfred Colpaert
Department of Geography, University of Oulu, Pl 3000, FIN-90014 Linnanmaa, Finland (timo.kumpula@oulu.fi).

Knowledge about quality and quantity of pastures and also of the amount of natural forage resources promotes sustainable use of pastures. Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) methods combined with traditional pasture mapping creates opportunity to study large areas resonably fast and accurate. In Northern Finland reindeer pastures have been mapped by the Geography Department of Oulu University and the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute (FGFRI) during 1995-98.
A new research with a similar topic is carried out in co-operation with the Chinese Academy of Science, Chengdu Institute of Biology. The research area, Dzoge (Zoige), is located in the north-western Sichuan province on the eastern part of the Tibetan plateau. The research team visited Dzoge in summer 2000, and another field-excursion takes place in summer 2001.
Based on the research methods used in Finland an investigation on the high-altitude pastures is carried out. One objective is to adjust the research method to the environmental conditions of the new research area. The pastures consist of step- and swamp meadows with an alpine vegetation. In the research area test plots cover the main vegetation types. The coverage of plant species and the rate of degradation is measured in each plot. Basing on the Landsat TM 5 image from the area and according to field data, a classification of pasture types and degradation rate will be produced. As s final result shows a map the distribution of each pasture type and a table indicates the total coverage (in ha).
The natural pastures are used by Tibetan pastoralists as source of forage to carry out mobile animal husbandry. The livestock consists of yak, sheep and horses of which the amount in the herd composition varies regionally. The animal husbandry management is in most cases quite traditional with an essentially subsistence-based economy. According to the changing socio-economical and ecological context is the animal husbandry management subject to rapid transformations. This focus of the research project intends to elucidate the strategies with which the pastoralists respond to the changed contexts.
The findings of the research should enable us to make recommendations on the future direction of mobile animal husbandry in the region in question.

The effect of separation of reindeer calf (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) on suckling events, milk yield and heart rate under experimental conditions

Stéphanie C. Lefrère^1,2, Mauri Nieminen², Torgny Mossing³ & Jacques Goldberg^1
1 René Descartes University, Animal & Human Biosociology Department (Paris V)- 12, rue de l´école de médecine – 75270 Paris Cedex 06, France (stephanie.lefrere@rktl.fi).
² Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.
³ Department of Ecological Zoology, University of Umeå, Sweden.

From the early calving season up to the pre-rut period in September 2000, an experimental group (4 females and their male calves) was equipped with heart rate monitors. The aim was to analyse the effects of partial separation of mother and calf at different time periods (4, 8, 12 h). Indeed, the female-calf bound plays a particularly important role, and in case of disruption, some troubles like stereotypes might appear. Thus, vocalisations emitted (grunts) and heart rate were recorded and used as alerting signals to show the stress impact. Females were milked artificially just before reunion. Subsequently, suckling events were observed: olfactory recognition, mean lasting and their occurrence. Finally, the impact of measured factors on average milk yield per female was studied.
It appears that, heart rates are not affected by grunts by the increase in hours of separation. Heart rate tend to decrease with separation time while grunts increase. Calves grunt more if separated for 8 hours than for 12 hours, which expresses habituation to separation. Thus, calves start grunting when separated from their mother, but curiously, if females were nearby them in the neighbouring fence, it started to decrease.
Successful suckling can occur without olfactory recognition showing there’s another source of information, which is visual, because the calf is alone in presence of his mother in corral. Furthermore, concerning lasting of suckling events, they tend to increase for 8 hours of separation, but reach a stable point after 12 hours of separation for all cases, expressing either habituation to separation or a physiological parameter such as reducing strength. Commonly, the more the occurrence of suckling is important and the more the mean lasting is short and the contrary. It seems also that there is a correlation between short lasting of suckling and a low milk yield. Of course, it may vary according to individual differences.
The mean lasting suckling for calves between 6 and 9 weeks old varies from 20 to 40 sec. Suckling frequency per hour varies between 0,7 and 1,8 by excluding one female.
According to physical parameters, it appears that under warm weather and high mosquito density, we have a suckling frequency which increases and a mean lasting reducing. During rain, we can notice the reverse. It appears as a disruption in mother - calf contacts. Finally, it seems that neither the presence of human, handling of reindeer nor the close contact while observing them affects the suckling unfolding, probably due to the tame feature of this species.

The slaughterhouse law of reindeer and breeded game, compared to the law of game meat – a degree project at NVH

Eli Ristin Nergård
Norwegian School of Veterinary Science (NVH), Box 8146 Dep, N-0033 Oslo, Norway; Sykestugt 4, N-9730 Karasjok, Norge (eli.r.nergard@veths.no).

A comparison study of the demands of the law, to foodhygiene and control with handeling of game compared to reindeer and breeded game, which includes production, storing, transport, offering and the perspectives of animal protection.
Differences, similarities and concequenses of the laws will be discussed in relationship to the producers, practical meatinspection and the local foodhygiene departments.
The laws in our neighbour countries (EU and Russia) will be discussed and compared to the Norwegian laws, and compared in relationship to import/ export of meatproducts and live animals.

Dietary effects on rumen microbes in reindeer

Anna Nilsson¹, Michael Murphy², & Birgitta Åhman^1
1Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Reindeer Husbandry Unit, SLU, P.O. Box 7023, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
²Lantmännen Foderutveckling AB, P.O. Box 30192, S-104 25 Stockholm, Sweden.

Rumen adaptation to various diets after restricted feed intake and starvation was studied in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) during winter. All data was based on data from slaughtered animals. Forty-four eight-month-old female reindeer were initially fed a simulated winter diet (lichen diet). Animals continuously offered the lichen diet ad lib. were compared with restrictively fed reindeer (given half of the ad lib. ration for eight days followed by one day of starvation). The restrictively fed animals had less rumen content, with higher pH, lower dry matter and volatile fatty acid concentration and also lower counts of bacteria and protozoa, but the effect was less dramatic than reported from totally starved reindeer. During a following five-week period, one group was re-fed the lichen diet ad lib. and the animals in this group showed no sign of disturbed rumen activity, but had a negative body weight trend. Three other groups were fed pelleted grain-based reindeer feed, combined with either lichens or grass silage, or fed silage with a gradually increasing addition of pellets. Initially, health problems occurred with diarrhoea and emaciation, leading to loss of animals. However, the remaining reindeer seemed to adapt to the diet and the body weights slightly increased. The feeding strategies resulted in less rumen content, with higher dry matter and volatile fatty acid concentration and higher count of protozoa. Lichen utilizing bacteria, were drastically reduced when lichens were lacking in the diet, and these bacteria could thus be classified as a substrate specific group. No cellulolytic bacteria were found in the reindeer and problems utilising the silage thus occurred. The number of protozoa decreased over time on the lichen diet and was low in euthanised animals, indicating that protozoa may reflect unsuitable rumen conditions.
Reindeer appear to be adapted to shorter periods of inadequate feed intake, even though the rumen activity seems to be negatively affected. Natural feed sources like lichens can restore the rumen ecology better than grain- or silage based diets.

Palatability and nutrient composition of plants, fungi and lichens foraged by reindeer

Harri Norberg, Veikko Maijala & Mauri Nieminen
Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, Fin-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.

Reindeer is known to select always the best quality forage available. Since both quality and availability of forage species change during the year, reindeer variably feeds on different plant, mushroom and lichen species depending on season. During the early growing season the nutrient values of forage species are at their best: high in protein, low in fibre. During summer the nutrient values generally deteriorate. However, there are differences in spatial succession of forage species, e.g. the quality of species as forage for reindeer retains longer on northern and shady fjell slopes. Taking account temporal variation in growth forms of different species there is continuously high quality food available. Reindeer follows these changes in the vegetation succession and seeks for new grazing areas accordingly. In the grazer - concentrate selector continuum reindeer is classified as an intermediate ruminant being both opportunistic and adaptable selector in its’ feeding strategy. This strategy, indeed, is essential for utilizing the natural forage resources – plants, fungi and lichens – with the highest possible efficiency taking account the physiological requirements for surviving in the North.
There are only few empirical experiments made on the palatability differences of natural forage of reindeer. The current understanding on the forage selection and preference ranking of forage species has so far considerably relied on traditional knowledge, which however provides essential background data for study design and enables comparisons to obtained new results. To examine the preference, i.e. differences in palatability, of some species of plants, fungi and lichens commonly found on natural pastures in Finland, we carried out a series of cafeteria-trials from 1994-97. A group of hinds (n=6-15) acted as “cafeteria-jury”, which was served with different forage species (4-8 at the time per trial) equally. Each individual hind was served for 5 minutes, and the choices were observed in a qualitative basis. In some trials also calves accompanied their respective mothers. The procedure was replicated 3-5 times and for each replication the order of species served was randomized. The order of preference was arranged using the palatability index. The palatability experiments were carried out at the Experimental Field Station of the Reindeer Herders’ Association in Kaamanen, Northern Finland. To relate obtained preferences of given species to their nutritive values we also analyzed the chemical composition of several species. For many species chemical composition has been presented in earlier studies, and could be extracted from the litterature. The aim of this study was to describe seasonal diet preferences of reindeer, and to discuss seasonality and quality of forage.
During summer preferred forage species in their respective trials were mountain birch, dwarf birch, blueberry, meadowsweet, cloudberry and northern bilberry. Also common sorrell, viviparous knotweed, creeping buttercup, fireweed, garden angelica, common cow-wheat and crawflower were palatable for reindeer. Marsh cinquefoil, bogbean and water horsetail were the most preferred species in their respective group. Boleti were highly preferred among fungi in September, but interestingly also fly agaric amanita was palatable. In October the most palatable lichen species were reindeer lichens (Cladina sp.) while Stereocaulon was obviously very unpalatable. Reindeer lichens were more palatable than arboreal horsetail lichens both in early winter and spring. While serving some moss species in spring some reindeer ate small amounts of Red-stemmed feather moss and Dicranum. During calving time reindeer selected hair grass, crowberry, sedges, lingonberry and blueberry, but didn’t eat early stage buds of offered cotton grass (Eriophorum vaginatum), which was presumed to be preferred spring forage for reindeer.

Methods in assessing reindeer calf production and mortality

Harri Norberg, Veikko Maijala, Mauri Nieminen & Jouko Kumpula
Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, Fin-99910 Kaamanen, Finland (harri.norberg@rktl.fi).

Calf production is a very important factor in current reindeer husbandry. In practice it expresses the proportion of calves per 100 hinds counted in the slaughter seasons’ round-ups. Calf mortality, on the other hand, is one of the most important factors affecting calf production. Many factors have effect on calf production, i.e. how many calves there will be for slaughtering and what is the mean slaughter weight of calves. Conditions already since previous summer prior to birth of calf, even conditions during earlier years, may affect calf production. The body condition and weight of hinds has been shown to affect the birth weight of calves and, thus, also the survival and slaughter weights of calves. The age of hind is also an important factor those calves born for young hinds being more vulnerable for mortality. However, age and weight correlate in the youngest year-classes of hinds, which complicates the analysis. In general, any single factor can’t sufficiently explain the variation observed in the calf production and mortality. In addition to the factors related to the characters of hind there are several others affecting the survival of calves and their weight gain during summer. These factors may be approached by using direct study methods on the field or by doing research on the official statistics on reindeer numbers and productive measures. Also weather statistics and data collected into Geographical Information System (GIS) may be utilized. Data on the pasture areas, land management, habitat selection of reindeer and local ways of practicing reindeer husbandry, including supplementary feeding, are essential information in studying and understanding calf production. Also the ecology of predators in the study area should be known as well as possible.
Studies on the productivity of reindeer stock and related calf production have often been based on the use of official statistics, which data has been related e.g. to the weather information or pasture characteristics obtained through pasture inventories and satellite mapping. Studies based on marking of individuals have been carried out at the Experimental Field Station of Reindeer Herders’ Association in Kaamanen, and also in reindeer herding co-operatives. Survival of calves has been monitored by tagging them with individually numbered ear-tags in the calving corrals or in the summer round-ups. Weight, sex and color of the calf are the most common factors recorded in conjunction with tagging. However, in the studies carried out in the reindeer herding co-operatives the reproductive unit, the hind, has seldom been studied or marked for individual recognition enabling later association of data on calf and hind. Individual collaring of hinds gives valuable information on reproduction and combined with ear-tagging of their calves offers more factors for studying survival. On the other hand, plain ear-tagging of calves cannot explain the causes of calf mortality. Radiotelemetry as a study method has provided considerably amount of new information on the causes of calf mortality and on the factors affecting survival of calves. Mortality transmitters were taken in use in Finland during 1997. Since that altogether 1 325 calves have been marked with radiocollars in three different locations. In the current research project starting in 1999 altogether 2 000 hinds have been individually collared in eight different reindeer herding co-operatives and the reproductive performance and calf survival of these hinds has been observed. The hinds have been studied by weighing and measuring. The survival of the calves with respect to calf characteristics has been observed as well. Also GPS and GIS techniques have been used to monitor pasture use of hinds. Supplementary feeding and local ways of reindeer herding have been paid special attention. To better understand the complex ecological interactions also studies on predators, both terrestrial and avian, on the same study sites would be essential. The challenge for the future will be combining all different study methods for obtaining detailed data on the interactions affecting calf production and calf mortality.

Nutritional effects of artificial feeding on serum biochemistry in reindeer

Olsen, M. A.¹, Utsi, T. H. A.², Rødven, R.³ & Mathiesen, S. D.^4
1 Department of Arctic Biology and Institute of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway (monica.a.olsen@fagmed.uit.no).
² Finnmark University College, Faculty of Business and Management, N-9509 Alta, Norway.
³ Department of Biology, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway.
⁴ Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.

Ten groups of male reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) calves (n=3 in each group) were fed diets of different qualities for 4-5 weeks. Blood samples were collected and analysed for enzymes, metabolites, minerals and electrolytes at the termination of the feeding trial. This was done to evaluate if serum biochemistry could be used to assess the nutritional status of the animals. Seven different qualities of grass silage (either Phleum pratensis, Poa pratensis or Festuca pratensis), hay of P. pratensis, lichen (Cladonia stellaris) and pelleted commercial feed were used. Blood samples from three animals taken directly from natural winter pasture were also included for comparison. Blood glucose ranged between 1.5 and 8.0 mmol/l (n=33), and was positively correlated with daily intake of crude protein (n=29, R²=0.26, p<0.05) and liver size (n=33, r²=0.28, p<0.05), and negatively correlated with the size of the reticulo-rumen (n=33, r²=0.32, p<0.05). Serum sodium correlated positively with body composition parameters (carcass weight and liver size) often used to determine the nutritional status of the animal, while the serum enzyme asparate aminotransferase correlated negatively with the carcass weight of the animals (n=33, r2=0.36, p<0.05). Serum total protein (r²=0.37, p<0.05), albumin (r²=0.42, p<0.05), calcium (r²=0.44, p<0.05) and magnesium (r²=0.30, p<0.05) were all positively correlated with daily intake of protein in the fed animals (n=29). Serum total protein was negatively correlated with the size of the reticulorumen (n=33, r²=0.32, p<0.05), albumin correlated positively with liver size (n=33, r²=0.27, p<0.05) and triglycerides correlated positively with carcass weight (n=33, r²=0.25, p<0.05). Consequently, the above serum parameters are suitable to determine the nutritional status of artificially fed reindeer.

Experimental warming of reindeer forage plants in situ increases their growth

Sunna Marie Pentha¹, Nicholas Tyler1 & Philip Wookey^2
1 Department of Biology, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway.
² Department of Earth Sciences, University of Uppsala, S-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden.

Between year variation in the live body mass of reindeer is strongly correlated with climate variables such as temperature in summer. Likewise, the growth of plants in northern habitats is modulated, at least in part, by the climate. We investigated the effect of an artificial increase in ambient temperature on the growth of reindeer forage plants throughout one summer in northern Norway to test the hypothesis that in a cold environment like this a small increase in temperature would increase net above ground primary production (NPP). Temperature was manipulated over tundra plots (500 m.a.s.l) from July to September 2000 using open topped chambers (OTC) which each covered an area of approximately 1.3 m². Seven OTCs and seven unwarmed plots were assigned in a pairwise randomised block design within a 30 x 30 m exclosure. The OTCs were established approximately one week after snowmelt and were left in place for the whole growing season. Temperature was measured and recorded at hourly intervals throughout the summer at 5 cm above ground in three OTCs and in three control plots. Vascular plants were harvested from one new quadrat (25 x 25 cm) in each OTC and each control plot four times during the summer. The plants were sorted by species and divided into current and previous years’ growth. All material was dried at 55^oC for 24 h and weighed to 0.001g. The mean temperature over the summer was higher in the warmed plots (12.4^o C) compared to the control plots (10.9^o C; P<0.01). Differences between mean temperatures in the OTCs and the control plots varied from +3.9^oC to +0.3^oC. The NPP of vascular plants (all species combined) measured at the final harvest in september was 31.4% higher in the OTCs compared to the control plots (P<0.1). The specific NPP of vaccinium myrtillus was 24.9% higher in warmed plots compared to control plots (P<0.01). Analysis is under way to determine whether the increase in biomass of vaccinium myrtillus in the otcs represented an increase in the standing crop of important nutrients available for reindeer or merely an increase in the biomass of structural elements in the plants.

Muscle protein metabolism in fed and undernourished reindeer calves during winter

A. Reeta Pösö¹, Ulla Heiskari², Miia Lindström¹, Mauri Nieminen² & Timo Soveri^1
1Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, University of Helsinki, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
²Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.

In freely grazing reindeer, protein metabolism during winter is limited by the low nitrogen content of lichens that is their main source of energy. The known adaptive changes that help to conserve nitrogen include the reduced excretion of urea in urine and the more efficient recycling of urea into the rumen, but practically nothing is known of the seasonal changes in the rates of protein synthesis and degradation which are the major determinants of protein mass. To compare effects of feeding and moderate under-nutrition on muscle protein metabolism, we measured muscle fibre area and the activity of cathepsin B, one of the key enzymes in protein degradation in reindeer calves fed either pelleted reindeer feed ad libitum (n=8) or restricted amounts of lichens (n=8). The calves were from the experimental herd of the Reindeer Herders Association at Kaamanen. The metabolisable energy in the lichen was 10.2 MJ/kg dry matter and that in the commercial feed 10.8 MJ/kg. Crude protein and crude fat contents on a dry-matter basis were 2.6 and 2.5%, and 10.2 and 3.9% in lichens and commercial feed, respectively. For 5 weeks starting from the end of January lichens were offered ad libitum and the amount of lichens consumed was recorded. During the following 2 weeks the amount of lichens was reduced to 60% of the ad libitum amount, and this restricted feeding was continued for an additional 6 weeks. Biopsy samples from the middle gluteal muscle were taken in November, January and at the end of the experiment in April.
The activity of cathepsin B decreased in all calves from November to January and remained at that low level for the rest of the study period. There were no differences between the two groups of calves. This result indicates that the rate of protein degradation is attenuated during winter irrespective of the type of feed or the amount fed. In all calves the muscle fibre composition remained unchanged during the winter. In the lichen group, the fibre size also remained unchanged, whereas in the calves fed pelleted feed the cross sectional area of type I and type IIA muscle fibres increased significantly from November to April. In an earlier study it has been suggested that the decrease in the cross-sectional area of muscle fibres indicates increased utilisation of muscle protein, and thus the present results can be taken as an indication that in the lichen group the rates of protein synthesis and protein degradation were in balance during the winter, but in the pellet-fed group the rate of protein synthesis was greater than that of protein degradation and the muscle fibres continued to grow also during the winter. In summary these results show that moderate under-nutrition causes no muscle wasting in reindeer calves, and the decreased availability of nitrogen is partially compensated for by adaptive decrease in protein degradation.

This study was supported by a grant from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Finland.

Norwegian Reindeer Husbandry: administration and management

Norwegian Reindeer Husbandry Administration
Markveien 14, N-9510 Alta, Norway (alta@reindrift.no; www.reindrift.no).

The Norwegian Reindeer Husbandry Administration (NRHA) is the governmental institution responsible for the implementation of the Reindeer Husbandry Agreement and for the management of the natural resource upon which reindeer husbandry depends. The NRHA also serves as the secretariat for a variety of boards, councils and funds related to reindeer husbandry.
Reindeer are herded over an area of approximately 140.000 km² equivalent to about 40% of the mainland area of Norway. Northern and central Norway is divided into reindeer pasture areas which, in turn, are divided into 90 reindeer pasture districts. These areas account for >95% of all reindeer husbandry in Norway. Only Saami people may herd reindeer here. Reindeer herding is also carried out by both Saami and Norwegians in southern Norway in special ‘Concession Areas’ outside the main Reindeer Pasture Areas.
Reindeer pasture districts are divided into herding units consisting of one or more reindeer owners. Today there are 562 herding units that fully or in part employs about 2800 people.
There are today approximately 170.000 semi-domesticated reindeer in Norway, most of these (c. 120.000 animals) in the north of the country. The number of animals in the north has decreased by approximately 40% during the last 10 years. Elsewhere the number of animals has remained roughly constant.
Approximately 1500 ton of reindeer meat were produced in 1999/00 at a value of USD 7.3 mill. The rate of production varies considerable between different areas, from 2.1 to 16.8 kg / animal in the herd, reflecting different herding patterns, different rates of loss, variation in stocking density and other natural and anthropogenic constraints.
Loss of animals has a major influence on the rate of production and on herders’ incomes. Animals are lost to predators, starvation and through accidents. Depredation accounts for 67% of the total annual loss of calves.
NRHA routinely collects a large amount of information on live body mass, carcass mass, birth rates, loss and pasture conditions. The total area of mountain, tundra and island pasture available for reindeer in Norway has decreased considerably during the last 100 years.
Issues of high importance are (i) the protection of pasture areas from development and other forms of human activity and (ii) the maintenance of a predictable and sustainable reindeer herding through the minimisation of losses and the maximisation of income.

Time trends of Cs-137 in wild mushrooms - influence on reindeer after a nuclear accident

Kristina Rissanen¹, Jarkko Ylipieti¹ & Yrjö Norokorpi^2
1STUK - Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Regional Laboratory in Northern Finland, FIN-96500 Rovaniemi, Finland.
²The Finnish Forest Research Institute (Metla), Rovaniemi Research Station, FIN-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland.

Although the Chernobyl ¹³⁷Cs fallout in 1986 was low in Finnish Lapland, averaging only 1000 Bq/m², measurable concentrations are still found in nature. The sharp, additional radiocaesium labelling due to the accident has made it possible to follow the transport of caesium in foodchains, and to determine biological half-lives. This paper presents the results of a study on ¹³⁷Cs concentrations in the fruiting bodies of mycorrhizal mushrooms collected during 1989 - 2000 in four forest stands of different site types at the Kivalo research area near Rovaniemi. Surface vegetation and soil samples were also taken in 1993 and 1999. Radiocaesium was found to have a long retention time in the mushrooms and in the soil. In 1989, about 71-76 % of the total ¹³⁷Cs in the mushrooms originated from the global fallout period. In 1993, 40-50 % of the total caesium in surface vegetation, and 50 - 60 % in the organic soil layer, was derived from global fallout. The calculations are based on Chernobyl fallout ¹³⁷Cs/¹³⁴Cs isotope ratios of 2:1 or 1.6:1, respectively. The high proportion of global fallout caesium in the mushrooms was also evident when the mushroom concentrations in 1989 were compared to the reference samples from the same stands in 1983. The levels were almost the same in most of the species. During the 12-year follow-up period the ¹³⁷Cs concentrations of Lactarius, Russula, Suillus, Leccinum and Rozites species decreased slowly, with a 7 to 10 or 18-year-long biological half-life. For Cortinarius armillatus, the biological half-life appears to be of the order of the physical half-life of ¹³⁷Cs, 30 y. Because radiocaesium accumulates in mushrooms, and the rate of decrease is low, mushrooms will significantly contribute, for a long period of time, to the ¹³⁷Cs intake of reindeer following a severe nuclear accident. This phenomenon has clearly been visible, after good mushroom seasons, in reindeer and other animals that consume large amounts of mushrooms in those parts of Norway and Sweden most affected by the Chernobyl emissions.

Reproductive success of reindeer associated with climate variability

E. Ropstad¹, S. D. Albon², O. Johansen³, R. Pedersen⁴, E. Dahl1 & N. J. C. Tyler^4
1Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Reproduction and Forensic Medicine, Norway.
²Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Hill of Brathens, Banchory, Aberdeenshire, AB31 4BW, UK.
³The Directorate of Reindeer Husbandry, 9500 Alta, Norway.
⁴Department of Biology, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway.

The relative importance of individual characteristics (phenotype) and extrinsic factors on annual and cohort variation in reproductive success was investigated in semi-domestic female reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Finnmark county, north Norway. The herd consisted of approximately 1500 free-living animals migrated between summer pasture on the island of Magerøy, and the winter pasture on the upland plateau of Finnmarksvidda. No supplementary feeding was used, except when the animals were in poor condition at the end of winter. Between 1992 and 1998 the herd winter pregnancy rate ranged between 62.6% and 82.8% (mean=76.0) and the percentage of females with a calf at foot in the autumn ranged between 61.5 and 80 (mean = 67.0%). Both pregnancy and autumn calf at foot were significantly related to age in a curvilinear relationship, increasing from yearlings to prime-aged animals (3-10 years) and then declining again in old age. After controlling for age and annual effects, pregnancy in the previous year significantly reduced the probability of being pregnant again. Reproductive pauses were more common in young than in older females. Autumn body weight significantly influenced the probability of pregnancy but although body weight varied between years it did not account for all the annual variation in the probability of pregnancy and having a calf at foot. Calf losses before weaning increased with low spring temperatures at the coast and tended to increase with late winter snow depth. The year a female was born (cohort) significantly influenced the probability of pregnancy but not the probability of calf surviving until the autumn. Cohort pregnancy rates were correlated negatively with late winter snow depth when the female was in utero.

Loss and mortality in reindeer in Finnmark County, Norway – a preliminary project

Kathrine A. Ryeng,¹ Terje D. Josefsen,² Karen K. Sørensen,² Torill Mørk,² Morten Tryland,¹ Ansgar Aschfalk, Svein D. Mathiesen,¹ Ivar Schjelderup,³ Herdis Gaup Åmot⁴ & Rolf G. Sarre^5
1The Norwegian School of veterinary Science (NVH), Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine (IAV), N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
²The National Veterinary Institute Tromsø (VI), N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
³The Norwegian Crop Research Institute, Holt Research Centre, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
⁴The Norwegian Animal Health Authority, District Veterinary Officers, N-9520 Kautokeino and ⁵N-9730 Karasjok, Norway.

In 2000, NVH/IAV applied together with VI, Holt Research Centre and Sámi College to the Norwegian Research Council for a long-term strategic research programme (SUP); "Loss, mortality and herd health in semi-domesticated reindeer in Finnmark County, Norway." The planned SUP included investigations on causes of reindeer loss, including predator injuries, but also other related aspects important for reindeer health and production. The purpose of the preliminary project reported here, was to point out tendencies and regulate some hypotheses for SUP, and look at the realism in collection of animal material. Dead reindeer were brought in to the project and registered by the participating reindeer herders in collaboration with the district veterinary officers, Statskog fjelltjeneste and the Reindeer Husbandry Administration. The causes of death, including predators, was to be determined of carcasses found on winter pasture and in the calving areas 2000 for two herds in Karasjok and Kautokeino, respectively. Furthermore, tendencies of nutritional condition, status of vitamin E and selenium, parasite burden, virus – and bacterial infections and access to the winter pasture plants were investigated. Animal material was successfully collected to the project, but its representativity was limited; reindeer killed by predators being strongly underrepresented. Twenty eight out of 32 dead reindeer from the winter pastures had died from starvation. Nevertheless, there was a large variation between the participating herds. Most of the starved reindeer had died late in the winter season. Many were given silage. Analyses of rumen contents indicated the silage not to be suitable for reindeer. Heavy parasite burden in some undernourished animals may well have contributed to death. Three out of 15 dead newborn calves were killed by predators. The other calves were weak and small, and had probably died due to cold weather and and/or starvation. The study indicated that selenium- and vitamin E-deficiency is not a problem, while herpes virus, bovine virusdiarrhea–virus, parapoxvirus, and potentially patogenic bacteria cannot be excluded as causes of reindeer loss and mortality.

The project was supported by the Norwegian Reindeer Husbandry Research Council.

Clinical evaluation of established optimal immobilizing doses of medetomidine-ketamine in captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

Kathrine A. Ryeng,¹ Stig Larsen,² Birgit Ranheim,² Gunn Albertsen³ & Jon M. Arnemo^1
1The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science (NVH), Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine (IAV), N-9292 Tromsø, Norway (kathrine.ryeng@veths.no).
²Departments of Large Animal Clinical Sciences and of Pharmacology, Microbiology and Food Hygiene, PO Box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
³Selvbyggerveien 145, N-0591 Oslo, Norway.

The objective was to evaluate clinical effects and repeatability of clinical effects of established optimal immobilizing doses of medetomidine (MED)-ketamine (KET) in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). Twelve healthy 6- to 8-month old reindeer were included in the study. Each reindeer was immobilized once with an initial dose of 0.06 mg of MED/kg of body mass and 0.3 mg KET/kg and twice with an optimal dose of MED-KET. Reversal was achieved with 5 mg of atipamezole/mg of MED injected 45 minutes after MED-KET administration. Recorded variables included time to first sign of sedation, time until the animal lifted its head up, and time until the reindeer stood. Oxygen saturation of arterial hemoglobin (SpO2), respiratory rate (RR), heart rate (HR), and rectal temperature (RT) were recorded 10, 25, and 40 minutes after immobilization. Mean time to first sign of sedation and time until an animal lifted its head up were significantly reduced for reindeer given optimal doses, compared with the initial dose. Mean SpO2 remained > 90% during initial immobilization, was significantly lower for the optimal doses, but increased during immobilization from 85 to 89%. At all doses, RR increased significantly throughout the recorded period; however, RT and HR were rather constant and were similar to corresponding values recorded in reindeer in winter. Except for time until reindeer stood, all time variables, SpO2, RR, RT, and HR were repeatable. Immobilization of captive reindeer with the established optimal doses is clinically acceptable, although SpO2 should be carefully monitored. Optimal doses produced the same clinical effect during repeated immobilization of the same reindeer.

Published in Am. J. Vet. Res. 2001. 62 (3): 406-13.
Companion paper: Ryeng, K.A., Arnemo, J.M. & Larsen, S. 2001. Determination of optimal immobilizing doses of a medetomidine hydrochloride and ketamine hydrochloride combination in captive reindeer. American Journal of Veterinary Research 62 (1): 119-126.

Short-term loss in body mass in reindeer

Rolf Rødven & Nicholas J. C Tyler
Department of Biology, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway.

Live body mass (LBM) is widely used to assess the growth, welfare and productive potential of animals. Accurate measurement of LBM requires both a carefully calibrated balance and an appreciation of the dynamic variation in the body mass of the animals that occurs between seasons, from day to day and even from hour to hour. In a field trial, 96 lactating adult (> 2 yr.) female semi-domesticated reindeer were selected from a herd of approximately 3000 animals which had been gathered, several hundred at a time, in an outdoors paddock as part of normal management procedure. Each animal was weighed to 0.2 kg on an electronic balance twice on the same day with an interval of between 2 and 8 h between successive weighings; none had access to food or water while it was in the paddock. In a laboratory trial, six male reindeer (17 mo.) were held indoors (11ºC) in individual metabolism chambers for 12 h without access to food or water. The animals were weighed to 0.5 kg every 2 h on an electronic balance. All the urine and faeces that each produced was separated at collection and weighed hourly to 1 g. All adult reindeer lost weight between successive weighings in the field trial. The mean rate of weight loss was 535 gh^-1 (7.3 gkg LBM^-1h^-1). All yearling reindeer lost weight over 12 h in the laboratory trial. The rate of weight loss was 308 gh^-1 (6.0 gkg LBM^-1h^-1). The rate of production of urine and faeces was effectively linear over the first 8 h in the laboratory trial. Production of urine and faeces explained on average 56% (s 13.1) of the observed drop in LBM. There was a small but significant difference in the rate of weight loss between the field and the laboratory trials; reindeer in the field lost weight more rapidly compared to animals in the metabolism chambers (P<0.001). reindeer maintained in a paddock without access to water and food lose significant amounts of weight during the course of one working day. the rate of weight loss is effectively linear from 2 h. the loss of weight is due in large part to the continuous production of urine and faeces. to weigh animals accurately it is necessary to standardise the length of time elapsed since they last fed.

Interactions between reindeer, humans and topography

Anna Skarin¹, Öje Danell¹, Roger Bergström² & Jon Moen^3
1Inst för husdjursgenetik avd ren, Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
²Inst. för skoglig zooekologi, Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden.
³Inst. för ekologi och geovetenskap, Umeå Universitet, S-901 87 Umeå, Sweden.

Spatial pattern of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and lichen (Cladina spp.) was investigated by counting pellet-groups, and recording lichen height. This was done in order to evaluate the wear of the vegetation at a southern Swedish mountain, Långfjället (Lat 62º10’, Long 12º20’). Normal movement of reindeer in the area and/or activities by human that have increased the movement of the reindeer might have caused the wear. The reindeer pellets were therefore related to altitude, vegetation type, and tourist trails. The lichen height, which was used as an indicator of the wear, was investigated in relation to reindeer pellets, tourist trails, altitude and vegetation type. The spatial pattern of the pellet-groups and the lichen was also visualized through interpolation of the data in a GIS-programme. Reindeer pellets were found to be most abundant in habitats at high altitudes, but there was no preference found for any special vegetation type. The high density of pellets on summits, and especially on south slopes, may have been a result of reindeer seeking relief from insect harassment and to thermoregulate where the wind velocity is higher. The pellet-group density also tended to be higher near the tourist trails, which tended to follow higher altitudes in the terrain. The lichen height had no general pattern in the area on a whole in relation to reindeer pellets or tourist trails. Thus, in the northern more unreachable part of the area a clear pattern was seen were the lichen height was high (10-20 cm) and the pellet-group density was low. The lichen height was shown to be lower (1-2 cm) in habitats of high altitudes, but not necessarily in habitats with much reindeer pellets, though this occurred in some vegetation types. Near the tourist trails the lichen height decreased in the vegetation type dry heath with lichens, which can be a result of both reindeer and tourists wear of the lichen layer. In an area like Långfjället, which is homogeneous and quite flat and easily reached by the reindeer, the clear spatial pattern of the reindeer might have been erased. However, in a more alpine area with higher summits it could be expected that the habitat use of the reindeer would be more differentiated.

The fatty acid composition of different tissue fats in reindeer as related to nutritional condition

Päivi Soppela
Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, P.O. Box 122, FIN-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland.

This study reports the fatty acid composition of different tissue fats in reindeer as related to nutritional condition (Soppela, 2001). The subprojects deal with (1) the fatty acid composition of serum lipids in the newborn reindeer, and the fatty acid composition of their mother's serum and milk; (2) the fatty acid composition of adipose tissues and (3) of bone marrow fats in reindeer in good condition in autumn and in undernourished reindeer in winter and spring; and (4) the fatty acid composition of serum lipids in well-fed or moderately undernourished reindeer calves during winter and spring. The reindeer were mainly from the experimental herd of the Finnish Reindeer Herders' Association, located in Kaamanen in Finnish Lapland and from Poikajärvi and Muddusjärvi reindeer herding co-operatives. Nutritional condition of reindeer was evaluated by body and carcass weights and blood analyses. The fatty acid composition of major lipids of the tissue fats was analysed by gas liquid chromatography.
Newborn reindeer had very low proportions of the principal polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), or linoleic and a-linolenic acids in their serum lipids as compared to their mothers' serum. These essential fatty acids were also present in small amounts in the mother's milk but their proportions rapidly increased in the serum of the calves during the first few days after birth. The adipose tissues of reindeer in good condition were dominated by saturated fatty acids such as the palmitic and stearic acids, and by unsaturated oleic acid. The fatty acid composition of adipose tissues varied only slightly between different locations, and there were only minor differences between reindeer in good condition in autumn and in poor condition in spring. The fatty acid composition of femur bone marrow of reindeer in good condition was similar to that of adipose tissues. The dominant fatty acid in metatarsal bone marrow was oleic acid (46-57%) that has a low melting temperature. The proportions of oleic acid and the principal PUFAs were decreased in the bone marrow of undernourished reindeer. Reindeer calves in good condition had high proportions of linoleic and a-linolenic in their serum still in mid-winter. When the calves were fed lichen, their body weights dropped and their serum lipids and proportions of the principal PUFAs decreased to a very low level. The calves fed a high protein feed had similar but slower and smalles changes in their serum values than the lichen group. The growth of the feed group started two months earlier in spring than it did in the lichen group.
The results show that changes in the nutritional condition of reindeer are clearly reflected in the fatty acid composition of blood and bone marrow lipids but only slightly in the fatty acid composition of adipose tissues. Newborn reindeer have a poor status of essential PUFAs. Reindeer get PUFAs poorly from their nutrition during winter, especially from lichens. The results suggest that when feeding reindeer, it would be important to pay attention also to quality of fat in feeds, in addition to their protein content. If feed contains a lot of protein, the growth of reindeer starts earlier in spring and dietary requirements of the essential PUFAs are increased. In further studies, it would be important to study the effects of artificial feeding on the fatty acid composition of reindeer meat, as this may affect on taste and quality of meat.

Soppela, P. 2001. Poron kunto, eri kudosrasvojen rasvahappokoostumus ja ruhon rasvojen laatu. (Body Condition, the Fatty Acid Composition of Different Tissue Fats and Carcass Fat Quality, English summary) Arctic Centre Reports 34: 1-35.

Magnesium alloy rumen boluses as Mg–supplement for reindeer

Säkkinen¹, H., Eloranta, E.², Vahtiala, S.³, Puukka, M.⁴, Timisjärvi, J.2, Saarela, S.¹, & Ropstad, E. ^5
1Dept. of Biology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
²Dept. of Physiology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
³Polarjalostus co-operative, Muhos, Finland.
⁴Laboratory, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland.
⁵Dept. of Reproduction and Forensic Medicine, Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine, Oslo, Norway.

Mineral imbalances may occur among reindeer as a result of low mineral content of winter forage, especially when combined with restricted feed intake. In this study, magnesium (Mg) alloy rumen boluses were used as Mg -supplement for reindeer. Findings from other ruminants have indicated an interrelationship between plasma Mg and calcium (Ca). Thus, one aim was to study if the Mg supplement had an effect on plasma Ca concentration.
Two Mg alloy rumen boluses, each containing approximately 15 g of Mg, were inserted to the rumen of six nine-month-old female reindeer calves (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) after 18 days of lichen feeding. Lichen feeding continued for 17 days after insertion of the boluses, and was followed by feeding with Mg rich pelleted concentrates for 10 days. The animals were housed indoors in separate cages and fed individually. Blood samples were collected for measurements of plasma Mg and Ca. In addition, analyses included urine concentrations of the two minerals in proportion to urine creatinine concentration (Mg/C and Ca/C). The decomposition of the boluses in the rumen was followed by weighing them once a week simultaneously with measurements of rumen content pH. This was possible by removing the boluses through rumen cannulae, that had been operated on the caudal left side of the animals.
The rumen boluses increased plasma Mg concentration. The peak plasma Mg concentration (mean 1.13 mmol/l, S.D. 0.04) was achieved 2-6 days after insertion of the boluses, and was significantly higher (p<0.01) than the plasma mg concentration prior to insertion (mean 0.82 mmol/l, s.d. 0.16). Thereafter, plasma mg concentration gradually decreased but remained above the mean plasma level of 0.91 ± 0.11 mmol/l at start. plasma ca concentration decreased with increasing plasma mg level. The minimum plasma ca level (mean 2.39 mmol/l, s.d. 0.03) was reached 1-5 days after insertion of the boluses. Thereafter, it increased gradually, and was back at the level at start (mean 2.44 mmol/l, s.d. 0.15) by the end of the study. The decrease in plasma ca between the level prior to insertion of the boluses and at the concentration minimum was significant (p<0.01).
There was a tendency towards increasing excretion of both mg and ca after the rumen mg boluses were inserted. The difference between the urine ca/c ratios before insertion of the boluses (0.95 ± 0.32 mmol/mmol) and the peak ratio (2.10 ± 0.36 mmol/mmol), that occurred 10-21 days after insertion of the boluses, was significant (p<0.001). The fact that peak urine ca/c ratios occurred after plasma ca minimum suggests, that the increase in urinary ca excretion may be a secondary response, and other mechanisms may have been primary factors behind the plasma ca lowering effect of mg supplement.
Further studies are needed to study the prevalence of mg related mineral disturbances among reindeer before using mg supplements in reindeer management. The large variation in decomposition of the rumen boluses between animals (50-80 %) that was possibly related to rumen content ph and diet indicates, that timing and duration of mg supplementation provided by this method may be unpredictable in field conditions.

Pathological findings in reindeer succumbed to starvation

Karen K. Sørensen¹ Torill Mørk¹, Terje D. Josefsen¹ & Kathrine Ryeng^2
1National Veterinary Institute Tromsø, Stakkevollvn. 23b, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
²The Norwegian School of Veterinary Sciences, Stakkevollvn. 23b, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.

We here present the major pathological findings in reindeer that had succumbed to starvation during the winter 2000. The carcasses were collected from three herds in Finnmark county, Norway. The study was part of the pilot project “Loss and mortality in reindeer in Finnmark” (see separate poster). The project received 32 frozen reindeer carcasses from the herds Kautokeino 1 (n=18), Kautokeino 2 (n=5), and Karasjok 1 (n=9). The dead animals were succumbed (n=30) or euthanised (n=2) in the period from the 3^rd of March to the 24^th of May.
Many of the animals had been offered grass ensilage as supplemental feeding on winter pasture from February/March, and some of the calves had been taken home for emergency feeding with lichen, ensilage and pellets. However, botanical analyses of rumen content (NINA, Trondheim) suggested that the ensilage used had a non-optimal quality as feed for reindeer (too much stem and too little leaves). Necropsies were performed according to a standard operating procedure, and tissue samples were collected for bacteriological, histological and parasitological analyses. The nutritional status of the carcasses was judged by visual examination of body fat (in subcutis, abdomen, pericardium and bone marrow). The fat content in bone marrow from femur was also measured chemically (Unilab Analyse AS, Tromsø). In 28 of the 32 carcasses examined the major finding was severe emaciation (cachexia). The other four animals had died/been euthanised because of injuries caused by predators or other trauma. One of the animals injured by predators was also cachectic. The age distribution of cachectic animals was as follows: Calves (9-12 mo): n=18, yearlings (21-24 mo): n=4, adults (>2 years): n=7. There were 12 male and 6 female calves, whereas all yearlings and adults were females. The average carcass weights of cachectic animals were: Adults: 41,9 kg (min-max: 37-48,5 kg), yearlings 37,8 kg (min-max: 24,5-51 kg), female calves: 22,7 kg (min-max: 18-26 kg), and male calves: 25,7 kg (min-max: 19-31,5 kg). The necropsies revealed the following typical changes: The eyes were sunken, and there were no visible fat in subcutis or around organs. Muscle mass were markedly reduced and the animals revealed a serous atrophy of pericardial fat and bone marrow. Chemical analyses showed < 2% fat in bone marrow. The liver appeared dark, almost black in colour, and there were excessive deposits of hemosiderin in liver macrophages. Soft faeces was observed in only two carcasses, both were calves which had been fed ensilage and pellets. As the necropsies revealed no signs of illness that could explain severe emaciation, we conclude that it was caused mainly by undernourishment. Heavy parasite burden may have contributed substantially to the emaciation in some cases, with lung worm (see separate poster) and larva of warble fly and throat bot fly as the most important parasites.

The Reindeer Husbandry Research Council is acknowledged for financial support.

Parapoxvirus infection in Finnish reindeer 1999-2000

Maria Tikkanen¹, Varpu Hirvelä-Koski² , Minna Nylund² , Erkki Neuvonen¹, Liisa Sihvonen¹ & Anita Huovilainen^1
1National Veterinary and Food Research Insititute, Department of Virology, P.O.Box 45, FIN-00581 Helsinki, Finland.
²National Veterinary and Food Research Insititute, Oulu Regional Unit, P.O.Box 517, FIN-90101 Oulu, Finland.

A contagious disease causing erosions, papules, pustules and ulcers in the mouth of reindeer has long been known in Finland escpecially during wintertime. Clinical signs of the disease are loss of appetite, fever, abundant salivation, difficulties to eat and pustules and ulcers in the mucosa of the oral cavity, tongue and lips. Secondary bacterial infections usually complicate the course of the disease. The most severe outbreak in reindeer was during the winter of 1992-1993, when about 400 reindeer died and almost 2800 animals had clinical symptoms. The presence of parapoxvirus in clinical samples was demonstrated by electron microscopic studies; this diagnosis was later confirmed by an orf virus specific PCR in Germany. Since the 1992/93 outbreak the disease has occurred to a varying extent among reindeer in Northern Finland and caused considerable economic losses to reindeer husbandry. In this study we have developed diagnostic PCR´s for the detection of parapoxviruses in clinical samples in order to identify the causative agent of the 1999-2000 outbreak. A PCR method for detection of rangiferine herpesvirus-1 (RanHV-1) was also set up.
Analysis of scab- and lesion material of affected reindeers showed that the causative agent was not orf virus nor RanHV-1: none of the samples examined were positive in orf virus or RanHV-1 specific PCR´s. In parapoxvirus specific PCR´s, however, nine reindeer out of 49 (18 %) were found to be positive. The positive PCR products were sequenced and the sequences were compared to corresponding sequences of known parapoxviruses in order to find out the relationship between the current Finnish reindeer virus and other parapoxviruses.

Fertility is not a function of mean live body mass in adult female reindeer

Nicholas J. C. Tyler & Rolf Rødven
Department of Biology, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway.

Significant positive correlations between body mass and fertility have been described in many species of cervids, including four sub-species of Rangifer. In virtually every case, however, analyses have been based on data collected from shot samples or from slaughterhouse material (so-called ‘cross-sectional’ samples). With data like these, each specimen contributes just one independent datum of a given type in the analysis. This approach, therefore, inevitably precludes all consideration of consistent, individual differences in reproductive performance which are a feature of many species of animals. We show here that body mass-fertility relationships based on data from a cross-sectional sample provide no basis for predicting the productive potential of an individual reindeer. Lifetime reproductive success (the total number of calves (male or female) reared to 4 mo. during the lifetime of a particular female) was measured in a single cohort of females (born 1990, n = 43) in a free-living, semi-domesticated herd of reindeer from northern Norway. Pregnancy was determined annually from the plasma concentration of progesterone or with ultrasound. The presence or absence of a calf was scored in September each year. Logistic regression analysis of pooled data, treated as though it had been drawn from a cross-sectional sample, suggested that the probability of pregnancy and of successfully weaning a calf was strongly related to live body mass (LBM) in September prior to the rut. However, when the same data were re-analysed, grouped by individual life history and using individual mean lifetime September LBM (MLSLBM) as the independent variable, the effect of body mass on reproductive performance vanished. The number of calves weaned per female (mean 4.6, range 0–6) increased with increasing lifespan but neither lifespan, nor the total number of pregnancies per individual, nor the total number of calves weaned per individual were correlated with MLSLBM. Some light animals were found to be highly productive; some heavy animals were unproductive. A female was more likely to wean a calf the following year if she had weighed more than her own MLSLBM in autumn, irrespective of whether she was heavy or light relative to the cohort mean LBM for that year. A single measurement of LBM is, thus, not useful for predicting the reproductive potential of an individual female in this herd. Nor, in situations in which individual animals are selected for slaughter, is it necessarily useful to measure the quality of a herd in terms of the herd mean LBM.

Impacts of reindeer grazing on soil properties on Finnmarksvidda, Northern Norway

Christian Uhlig & Tore Sveistrup
Holt Research Centre, The Norwegian Crop Research Institute, 9292 Tromsø, Norway.

Numerous investigations have documented changes in vegetation due to reindeer grazing in Finnmark County, Northern Norway, during the last 30 years. Soil properties are known to play an essential role for plant growth and thus ecosystem productivity. However, rather few investigations are done on the impact of reindeer grazing on soil properties. The aim of this investigation was to identify possible changes in physical and chemical soil properties due to reindeer grazing. At four different locations on Finnmarksvidda 3 sample sites were selected subjectively according to lichen and plant cover at each of the locations: A) good lichen and plant cover; B) reduced lichen cover, but moderate plant cover; C) lichen and plant cover almost absent. It was supposed that differences in lichen and plant cover were due to differences in grazing intensity. Vegetations types investigated were lichen rich mountain birch forest, and lichen heath. At each sample site one soil profile was excavated, thoroughly described and sampled for physical and chemical analysis from the different soil horizons. Physical parameters studied were soil density, soil porosity, water and air content at different suctions, plant available water and texture. Chemical parameters measured were pH, soil organic carbon (org.-C), Kjeldahl-N, Cation Exchance Capacity (CEC), base saturation, and plant available P, Ca, Mg, K. The results showed that the mineral soil at all sites consisted of loamy sand/sandy loam with about 1-3% clay. On sample sites with good lichen and plant cover, the thickness of the organic layer did not exceed 6 cm. Plant roots were mainly found in or directly below the organic layer, but could also be numerous in mineral B-horizons until the depth of 20 cm. The thickness of the organic-O horizons decreased with decreasing lichen and plant cover, while soil pH of organic-O horizons and mineral A-horizons increased with decreasing soil organic matter. Rather little changes in the soil physical properties of the mineral soil were found. A strong correlation was found between soil org.-C and CEC for all sites and horizons. Furthermore, organic-O horizons had generally the highest amounts of plant available P, Ca, Mg, K. Assuming that differences in lichen and plant cover are related to differences in grazing intensities, results indicate, that reindeer grazing can considerably reduce amounts of soil organic matter. At the investigated sites on Finnmarksvidda, soil organic matter is regarded as one of the most essential key factors for soil fertility, and thus ecosystem sustainability and productivity.

Use of climatic data to estimate the effect of insect harassment on summer weight gain in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) calves

Robert B. Weladji
Department of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Norway, P.O. Box 5025, N-1432 Ås, Norway.

There is a lot of behavioural evidence supporting that harassment by insects is the most important causal link between warm summer temperatures and low body condition of reindeer, and that insect activity is influenced by weather condition. However much less is known regarding the effect of insect harassment on individual performance, measured as weight gain during summer for example. Using climatic data, this paper develops a simple index for the analysis of insect harassment that allows considering weather variables known to significantly affect insect activity and/or the level of insect harassment. The insect harassment index (IHI) which is based on ambient temperature > 13 °C, wind speed < 6 m/s and cloud cover < 40%, is further used to test the hypothesis that insect harassment has a negative effect on reindeer performance during summer in three norwegian populations. Results show that insect harassment negatively affects autumn weight of both male and female calves, which lose up to 66 g per unit of IHI. This is most likely through reduced grazing time, increased energy expenditure and reduced lactation for calves. Female calves lost more weight than males. This effect may therefore have consequence on future reproductive performance, calving time, calf birth weight and neonatal mortality. Insect harassment may therefore be a key-climate related factor for the summer ecology of reindeer and caribou. The presented index is easy to estimate and may be used to quantify and compare harassment level at various reindeer summer grazing areas.

Feeding of emaciated and undernourished reindeer calves – a degree project at NVH

Helene T. Weydahl
The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science (NVH), Box 8146 Dep., 0033 Oslo, Norway.

Background
Reindeer herding in Norway are commonly based on natural pastures all through the year. Sometimes the snow and/or ice conditions may render the pastures inaccessible to the animals. Under such circumstances the calves are especially prone to succumb to starvation, and the herders try to pick up weak calves and transport them down from the winter pasture, to be fed in a fence near the house. However, in my experience, these calves very often die after 2-4 weeks. In my degree project I want to approach the problem of feeding these calves.

Relevant factors to be investigated in this study

• Which feed to choose: Hay, ensilage, pellets, lichens. Should licking-stones be recommended?
• The significance of microbiological feed quality: Mould, listeria, others?
• The significance of nutritional feed quality: Contents of protein, soluble carbohydrates, hemi-cellulose, cellulose and lignin. What is the quality of feeds used today? What is recommended?
• Transmission of rumen fluid from animals with a functioning rumen – a way to improve the digestion in animals with failing rumen function? A way to smoothen the adaptation to new feeds?
• How to find the right time to start supplemental feeding: Are the calves too emaciated when the feeding starts?
• Area needed in the feeding fence.
• Effect of giving the calves water, to make it unnecessary to use energy for melting snow. Will the calves make use of the water?
• The return to the herd and the natural pastures: How to find the right time?

The study will be performed in the spring 2003. I am grateful for any comments to this project, either orally during the conference or to my e-mail address: weydahlh@hotmail.com

Carcass composition of reindeer calves in various physical condition

Eva Wiklund & Ingemar Hansson
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Food Science, P.O. Box 7051, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden (eva.wiklund@lmv.slu.se).

Improved meat production in the reindeer herd is an important subject in today’s Swedish reindeer industry. The production can be increased by: a) balancing the herd size to the pasture resources, and b) optimising the herd structure towards a high proportion of high-producing animals. The productivity of the herd is closely correlated to the physical condition of the animals (Danell, 1998). The herd structure can be influenced by different slaughter strategies, where an increased percentage of calf slaughter is a commonly used method to increase the meat production from the herd (Helle & Kojola, 1993; Danell, 1998). This method has been used in Finnish reindeer herds since the beginning of the 1970’s and a large percentage of calf slaughter is today totally dominating the slaughter statistics (Nieminen et al., 1998).
Since the number of reindeer calves slaughtered are increasing also in Sweden (60 percent of the total reindeer slaughter 1999/2000 (National Board of Agriculture, 2000)), it is important to investigate their carcass quality. A total of 75 reindeer calves were included in a study (50 males and 25 females) to evaluate the influence of body weight and physical condition on carcass characteristics. All reindeer were slaughtered at a commercial slaughter plant, Arctic Deli AB, Harads, Sweden. At slaughter the animals were stunned with a captive bolt. The carcasses were collected over the winter slaughter season, i.e. from November to March to represent the normal time of slaughter for reindeer calves and the seasonal variation in quality. Before cutting, all carcasses were weighed and graded for body conformation and fat content according to the EUROP grading system used in Sweden. All carcasses were cut into commercial details and 21 of the carcasses were completely dissected. Dissection means that the carcass is separated in various details and further into lean meat, fat and bone. The same technique has earlier been used for beef, lamb, pig, fallow deer and moose carcasses (i.e. Hansson & Malmfors, 1978; Hansson, 1997).
All carcasses had low content of fat tissue. The average lean meat and bone content were 71.5 and 25.0 percent respectively. The light carcasses (< 20 kg) had 0.7 percent higher meat content compared with the heavier (> 20 kg) ones, probably an effect of the low fat content. No significant difference in fat content was found between male and female calves. The muscularity of the hindquarter was good enough for most carcasses to give commercial cuts of high quality.

References
Danell, Ö. 1998. Optimal production. Proc.10th Nordic Conference on Reindeer Research 13-15 March, Kautokeino, Norway. Rangifer Report 2, 19. Hansson, I. 1997. Svinslaktkroppar. Sammansättning, klassificering och utnyttjande. Inst.för livsmedelsvetenskap, rapport 20, SLU, Uppsala (in Swedish). Hansson, I. & Malmfors, G. 1978. Meat production from moose (Alces alces L.). Swedish J. Agric. Res. 8, 155-159. Helle, T. & Kojola, I. 1993. Reproduction and mortality of Finnish semi-domesticated reindeer in relation to density and management strategies. Arctic, 46, 1, 72-77. National Board of Agriculture. 2000. Statistik över renslakt för slaktåret 1999/00 (in Swedish). Nieminen, M., Kadenius, S., Tikkanen, K. & Törmänen, H. 1998. Reindeer meat and its production in Finland. Proc.10th Nordic Conference on Reindeer Research 13-15 March, Kautokeino, Norway. Rangifer Report 2, 29.

Malformations in reindeer calves

Erik Ågren
SVA, Department of Pathology, S-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden (Erik.Agren@sva.se).

Single cases of malformations have been reported sporadically in semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), e.g. brachygnatia, cleft palate, omphalic hernia, hydrocephalus, icthyosis, and anomalous number of limbs.In a four-year study in Västerbotten, Sweden, of reindeer females calving under surveillance in enclosures, all dead calves were necropsied (all less than 1 month of age). Six visible malformations were documented (table 1.), which is 3.8% of the total 158 necropsied calves, and is a malformation frequency of 0.2% of the calculated 2190 calves born in enclosures during four calving seasons. The frequency of malformations is not higher than in other domestic animals, but all malformations found in the study are lethal for the individual and are known in other species to be inheritable. In traditional reindeer herding of today, breeding is usually uncontrolled by man, and selection of breeding animals is mainly done with females, as most males caught in the round-ups during autumn are slaughtered. Malformations in semi-domesticated reindeer is probably not a problem for the population or the herd management, as nature quickly eliminates individuals unfit to survive in the wild, stopping all extensive spread of such genetic material.

Fall/ Case no.	Missbildning / Malformation
1-2	Gomspalt (GS)/cleft palatae (CP) (palatoschisis)
3	GS, underbett/CP, shortened upper jaw (palatoschisis, brachygnatia maxilla)
4	GS, harmynt/cp, lip and upper jaw (cheilo-gnatopalatoschisis), kroksvans/crooked tail (defect tail vertebrae), hjärtmiss-bildning (ventricular septumdefekt)/ heart malformation (ventricular septal defect), avsaknad av vänster njure, rektum och anus/aplasia of left kidney, rectum and anus (agenesis ren, atresia ani/rectum).
5	Arthrogryposis (AG) (muskelkontraktioner) med snedställning i bröstryggkotpelare och ledkontraktur i båda bakbenen/ AG (muscle contractions) with torticollis, thoracic vertebral deviation, and ankylosis in both hind limbs.
6	Hjärtmissbildning, ej definierad (bortkommet preparat p.g.a. felmärkning)/heart malformation, undefined (lost due to mislabeled specimen).
Tabell/Table 1. Påvisade missbildningar bland 158 obducerade renkalvar under en månads ålder, åren 1997-2000. / Diagnosis of malformations found at necropsy of 158 reindeer calves, less than 1 month of age, in 1997-2000.

Causes of perinatal mortality in reindeer calves

Erik Ågren
SVA, Department of Pathology, S-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden (Erik.Agren@sva.se).

Reindeer calf survivability is crucial to the productivity in reindeer herding. Calf mortality has in Sweden mainly been studied from the age of about two months, at the time of summer calf marking, and onwards, due to the problem of finding carcasses in the field to study the perinatal mortality. In a four year study (1997-2000) in Västerbotten county, Sweden, reindeer females were kept in a large enclosure during the calving seasons, to calve under close surveillance. The surveillance included deterring predators, spotting reindeer with calving problems or disease, and finding deceased calves to be necropsied. The calf mortality in the enclosures was in average 7,5%. In the Spring of 2000 the females were separated into different enclosures according to body weight at the time. Calf mortality was in the >60 kg group found to be only half of that in the group of females <60 kg. In the 124 necropsied reindeer calves found dead during four calving seasons, the single dominating cause of death was “emaciation/abandonment“ (figure 1), which could have been due to either weak-born “fading“ calves, or poor maternal instincts in the females. Preliminary ethologic studies in the enclosures did not show that calving or mother–calf bonding was disturbed by the fenced-in situation. Infections can be expected to be a problem not found in free-ranging animals whereas predation in the enclosures could be excluded, except for bear attacks one year. The study shows that good management and appropriate hygienic measures are crucial to keep the calf losses as low as possible. Selection of breeding stock with good maternal instincts and adjustability to the situation of calving under surveillance in enclosures should also improve calf survivability.

Diagram 1. Causes of perinatal calf losses in reindeer calving in enclosures, 1997-2000. Total number of necropsied reindeer calves (aged 0-1 month); 124. Average calf loss per year 7,5 %. All predation was due to three attacks by brown bear in 1998.

Diagram 1. Tidiga kalvförluster hos vårhägnade vajor under 1997-2000, fördelade på förlustorsaker. Totalt 124 aborterade eller födda kalvar som obducerats, ingår. Medelförlust per år 7,5 %. All predation skedde vid tre björnbesök 1998.

Digestibility of lichens and silage in reindeer rumen fluid

Birgitta Åhman¹, Johanna Wallsten¹, Öje Danell¹ & Peter Udén^2
1Reindeer Husbandry Unit, Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, SLU, P.O. Box 7023, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
²Department of Animal Nutrition and Management, SLU, P.O. Box 7024, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.

A simple in vitro method to assess the digestibility of silage and hay (VOS = rumen organic matter digestibility) is used as a routine procedure at SLU for evaluation of feeds to cattle. We compared in vitro and in vivo digestibility of three different feeds, lichens (Cladina spp.) and two qualities of mixed grass silage (first and second harvest), to find out if VOS can be used also to evaluate forages to reindeer.
Ten reindeer were given three mixed diets (80% lichens and 20% silage or 20% lichens and 80% of either of the two silages) in a change-over design. Each diet was given for 14 days and faeces were collected during the last 5 days. In vivo apparent digestibility of the mixed diets was calculated based on organic matter intake and faecal excretion. The digestibilities of the single feeds were then calculated, by differences, assuming no interactions between the feeds. Rumen fluids from slaughtered reindeer fed the same diets were used to measure VOS. The VOS value was used to estimate digestibility of the different feeds, using a formula based on calibrations made for cattle.
The estimated digestibilities differed only marginally from those measured in vivo. Digestibility was lowest for lichens (72% digestible organic matter according to VOS and 74% according to in vivo measurements) and highest for silage from the first harvest (77% according to VOS and 76% in vivo). Lower VOS for lichens was obtained when the rumen fluid was taken from a reindeer eating mainly silage, while VOS for silage did not depend on rumen fluid donor. The lichen fed reindeer had a significantly higher dry matter intake than the silage fed reindeer. It might be that the retention time in the rumen is longer for silage than for lichens, because of the difference in structure. This would then result in a greater rumen fill (which was also observed at slaughter) and possibly have a negative effect on feed intake.
We conclude that the tested VOS procedure can be used to estimate digestibility of the forages to reindeer. The calibration obtained for cattle gave good estimates of digestibility for these feeds. However, we were unfortunate in getting a narrow range of digestibilities in this experiment and further investigation have to be made to examine if the relationship between in vitro and in vivo digestibility is the same for other feeds, especially those with very low or very high digestibilities.

Reindeer warble fly - Hypoderma tarandi – histological and immuno-histological properties of the 1^st instar larvae

Kjetil Åsbakk¹, Rolf E. Haugerud², Mauri Nieminen³, Arne C. Nilssen⁴ & Antti Oksanen^1
1The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
²Nordic Council for Reindeer Husbandry Research, N-9292 Tromsø, Norway.
³Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, FIN-99910 Kaamanen, Finland.
⁴Tromsø Museum, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway.

The reindeer warble fly (Hypoderma tarandi), a parasite with a one-year life cycle, causes management problems and economic losses in reindeer husbandry and is often considered the probably most economically significant parasite of reindeer. The parasitic larvae cause cutaneous myiasis, generally resulting in weakness and decreased grazing vitality, allergic responses, skin damage, secondary infections by micro-organisms, and at high densities the larvae can be a direct mortality factor. Effective broad-spectrum antiparasitic drugs such as ivermectin are available to control the parasite burden, but most of the ivermectin dose is excreted relatively unaltered in the feces. This, together with the possibility of resistance development resulting from long term use of the drug, cause concern of possible impacts on reindeer pasture ecology. If other strategies could be developed, this could be of great importance, and in this context acquirement of more of basic knowledge of the biology and mode of life of the larvae is important.
Of the three stages of the warble fly larvae, the newly hatched 1st instar larvae is the first one to meet the reindeer and the reindeer immune system. In the project, which is economically supported by the Reindeer Husbandry Development Fund, Alta, the first part is related to properties of the 1st instar larvae with respect to histology and immuno-histology. Preliminary results are presented.

To abstracts of oral presentations.

Back to Meetings and Conferences.